Begegnungen20_Csete
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 20:61–69.
LÁSZLÓ CSETE
Sustainable Development of the Agrarian Economy
The five most important conditions determining the future of humanity are: health, drinking water, agriculture, air and biodiversity that are closely related to agrarian activities. The future importance of agrarian economy is also well indicated by the fact that the social problems of undernourished and famished hundreds of millions cannot be solved without food production, or that agriculture and sylviculture function extensively in space, closely intertwined with the natural environment. It is a complex area reproducing itself and the problems should be handled on global, regional and local levels, thinking and acting systematically. On global level however, meaningful progress can only be achieved if the local level of implementation, local governments and enterprises are made interested.
Indicative changes
The practical realisation of sustainable agrarian development is strengthened by two components:
– 1. Recently the Declaration of the Environmental Councils of the EU was published which deals with the future role of agrarian economy in several aspects and that too faithfully to reality. At last it is clearly stated that, in keeping with the objectives, food production is the most important task besides the preservation of natural resources, in the interest of supplying food to the population of the EU and of the world. This is important also because the superficial view has spread during the past decade that the production of agricultural raw materials and processed products has become unimportant besides several other agrarian functions.
– 2. The significance of the agrarian branches was formerly indicated by their percentage share in the GDP, by the export and import balance, or by the percentage of those employed in agriculture. By now these indicators show small proportions in a national economy, yet the strategic role of agriculture has not been lost, more over it has become more complex, and has taken a definite multifunctional character.
The productive and servicing activities of domestic agriculture and sylviculture, its existence, together with the organically linked countryside and regions cannot be substituted for by any other branch of the national economy, or by imports. It plays a role of strategic importance in food production and in the utilisation of the natural environment and biodiversity, in its protection and even in its enrichment, in the protection of the values of landscape, in the preservation of traditions, in village tourism, in holiday-making and recreation, in the development of the rural conditions of life and settlement, in the living standard of rural people, in the improvement of the social situation of pensioners, of the unemployed and families with many children, in winning over the voters and retaining them in the localities, and also in moderating inflation.
All this corresponds to the efforts of sustainable agriculture, but at times it requires new investments, with additional cost, and may be accompanied by smaller incomes, and it is a question how far the society would appreciate it through the price of agricultural products, or in other allocations and subsidies.
An interpretation of sustainable agricultural development
The sustainable development of agriculture is such a conscious economic development that it is in harmony with the regeneration of natural resources so very important in agriculture, and takes the assimilation capacity of the burdened environment (with manure, chemicals, etc.) into account (Figure 1). Each element of the definition is measurable, can be expressed numerically and may be tested in practice at every level (global, regional, local) and area of sustainability (social, economic, natural).
One may speak about economic development, or a given agrarian enterprise is financially sustainable only if–besides meeting the basic requirements of sustainability concerning natural resources and burdening the environment–it is liquid, in other words if it is continuously solvent and creates surplus, that is income, profit by the end of the production cycle, on the basis of which further developments can be realised and the entrepreneur’s individual needs can also be satisfied. In addition to the returns of agricultural, sylvicultural and other activities compensations, incomes, fees and payments received for the performance of public utility functions play an increasing role besides the returns. They are often called subsidies, though in reality this is not the case.
Economic development absolutely does not mean a drive for quantitative results, but first of all orientation towards quality. It can be safely said that the development of domestic agriculture is qualitatively unlimited. Development stresses deliberate, farsighted action as contrasted to growth that is a factual one and usually the quantitative growth of an economy is associated with it. It should be stressed that all this can be realised only if incomes are bigger than investments and costs.
Natural environment and agrarian development
Under regular conditions agricultural activities by themselves look after their renewable resources, whereas other branches simply use them, often wastefully. Only that would get out of the organic circular process of soil–plant–fodder- transformation by animals–manure and organic wastes and side products–soil whatever is burned (wood, straw, corn-stalk), in other words, resources are reproduced that are being again utilised by agriculture depending on precipitation and the conditions of heat.
This was the cultivation applied by the farms of Hungary in the 1950s, in keeping with the technical and technological level of the times. Later on, in the age of the elimination of domestic food shortage, a drive for quantities, and of ‘industry-like agriculture’ it had disintegrated and changes began after 1990. The use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides was reduced though mostly because of the shortage of funds. Unfortunately due to the one-sided dominance of cereals and corn, crop rotation was lagging behind the desirable level, similarly to the use of manure as the stock of animals also shrunk. The recycling of side products and wastes was not sufficient either.
In 2001 agriculture and sylviculture was active on precisely 82% of the area of the country, intertwined with the natural environment. Thus it is a first-class partner of environmental protection, not mentioning biodiversity. The interrelationships and mutual effects between the protection of nature and environment, and cultivation can be best characterised by the system of the pyramid of land use by Erz, presented in Figure 2.
In the country there are ten national parks of a total area of 485 thousand hectares, the protected districts cover 310 thousand hectares, the areas of protected nature are of 26 thousand hectares, areas of local significance are altogether of 37 thousand hectares and are in some relationship to settlements and the cultivating enterprises active in those regions. Therefore agriculture and sylviculture play an indispensable role acting as a buffer, reducing external effects on the environment in the rigorously protected areas.
At the same time agriculture and sylviculture are such green areas that provide indispensable conditions to human life by producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide. In Hungary green surfaces are critically few, particularly in cities and in the agglomerations.
The smaller or bigger gardens and plantations surrounding houses, the orchards, etc. do not only beautify the image of a village but also improve the quality of life and the possibilities of a pleasant life by their many-sided role. In a better off agricultural environment they also look prettier.
Biodiversity and the colourfulness of the biosphere occupy an extraordinary place in the role of agriculture played in the sustainability of the natural environment. The areas of agriculture and sylviculture, occupying an overwhelming area of the country are also the venue of the preservation, protection, reproduction of flora and fauna, and also of its enlargement by improvement and by gene reserves. With the termination of the burning of stubbles, by the plantation of forest belts protecting fields, by promoting the development of groves and shrubbery new habitats are established that favour the survival of flora and fauna.
The cultivation system of sustainable development
In cultivation systems the structure and dimension of activities can be adjusted to the ecological conditions of the habitat, to the utilisation of natural resources and to their regeneration, to burdening the environment and to the assimilation capacity of the environment, so that the profit achievable in the enterprise may allow for continuous development as well. Altogether they represent such a new quality in cultivation, in production, in the acquisition of techniques, in technologies that make sustainable agrarian development possible. Thus sustainability is not a kind of dream and desire but it can be shaped into a tangible reality. Particularly if society honours the public benefit services and sacrifices agriculture and sylviculture make.
Why does one speak about a system? Because all factors of cultivation operate in coordination and in interrelationship and jointly they have a greater effect than working in isolation. Thus the system is a complex one and is developing dynamically with scientific progress and innovation.
Production structure is adjusted to the conditions of the habitat (soil, precipitation, number of sunny hours, surface), to species, areas and to demand. The management of an enterprise is oriented towards quality, the environment and sustainability, it adequately enlarges knowledge by advisory services and extension training.
Learning from a series of years of draught, from anomalies of the climate, a soil cultivation adjusted to dry conditions is expedient within the system, and also the application of rotation of crops and integrated plant protection. Animal husbandry, breeding is conducted in concordance with the requirements of modern animal health protection, that keeps food safety also in mind. The production relations, of plant production, animal husbandry and services supplementing one another that enhance productivity are also considered, only to mention the most important factors. In a market competition selecting on the basis of efficiency only those can survive who can cultivate with profit, drawing from various resources (production, services, compensation by the state). It is going to be even more complicated in the framework of the EU, in the face of units and farmers enjoying the advantages of organic development.
In Western Europe research into precision plant production has been in progress for years and it was started two years ago in Hungary, within the framework of the National Research and Development Programme, coordinated by the Research Institute for Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In the framework of this research great attention is paid to factors related to sustainability. It can be stated that precision cultivation in a broader sense opens up a new way for the realisation of sustainability. In fact this kind of cultivation means the performance of activities adjusted to the local conditions and needs inside the plot of land. An organic part of it is investment the extent of which is precisely regulated, and as such it favours the protection of natural resources right from the outset.
Possibilities of change
Smaller or major changes of the structure of production and activities and the modifications of its proportions carry in themselves the possibilities of sustainability that would, at the same time strengthen the local role and significance of agriculture.
– 1. The use of land, a modification of the branches of cultivation (plough land, garden, vineyard, orchard, grass, forest, fishpond, reeds), particularly on slopes or areas of weaker production capacity has been an older, mostly unrealised effort in Hungary which cannot be postponed any longer at the gates of the EU. The enlargement of gardening areas, particularly by the reduction of plough land, turfing, afforestation and planting of trees in general are desirable due to economic interests as well as for the protection of nature and of the environment.
– 2. In the plough lands the moderation of the excessive weight of cereals and corn may serve sustainable development. The growth of the area of cereals (wheat, barley, rye, oat, triticale) is explained by the lack of capital, by a simpler production and harvesting. The two jointly hinder rational crop rotation, which is a resource free of charge, sparing the environment, regenerating the soil and which can be counterbalanced only by a significant use of chemicals, otherwise would result in a fall of average yields. In addition to the production of industrial and cash crops, protein-containing and fibrous-juicy fodder plants the production of vegetables on plough land and the planting of orchards may help in reducing the excessive weight of cereals. In addition no quotas are set for vegetables in the EU, currently Hungary is already a ‘major power’ in some fruits (sour cherry, apricot, rolling raspberry).
– 3. The production of wood on plough lands is not utilised, though it is a relatively rapid possibility of adjusting to the market conditions, which would also mitigate difficulties in employment, it is of educational effect and shapes the landscape. Its spread can be solved out of self-interest, with possible assistance to begin it, or with the help of bridging credit. For this purpose, despite the opinion of some environmentalists, it is acacia that would suit drier areas, and poplar for more humid ones. Wood production on plough lands increases green areas while it reduces energy imports and costs and improves the situation of demand in the longer run. In an increasingly sharp agricultural competition weaker quality plough lands, and even meadows and pastures, and also slopes can be profitably utilised by the plantation of forests. In the EU wood production on plough lands would be welcomed by all means because it limits agricultural production and improves the conditions of the environment.
Today heating with wood is cheaper than gas by about 40% according to calculations, in addition it spares the environment because practically no sulphur is emitted to the air, which would, among others, destroy even green surfaces in the form of acid rain.
– 4. So far acacia has proved to be promising for the establishment of the so-called energy forests. Actually acacia is the hard wood of the highest yield, it burns well while humid, its heating quality is the highest of the fast growing trees (14.7 MJ/kilo), its cutting maturity is a third or a fourth of oak and beech, it utilises solar energy well, it sprouts and takes root well, it is melliferous, meaning that its yield of honey may reach as much as 50 kilos per hectare. It has few illnesses and insect pests. An acacia energy forest can be felled after 4-5 years, the wood is utilised in small power stations of mixed fuel and that too with 70 to 80% efficiency. In addition the energy forest reduces soil erosion, increases the nitrogen content of soils, enriches their organic and humidity content. (According to calculations 100 thousand hectares of energy forest annually produce the value of 300 thousand tons of fuel oil.)
– 5. Turfing and animal husbandry based on it may satisfy various demands: it spares the environment, it corresponds to the requirements of ‘humane’ animal husbandry, it suits the objectives of safe food, creating the basis to quality animal products, and it is also lucrative. It may be considered at the perimeter of such villages where the meadows and pastures of a lower location were ploughed and the slopes of hills were tilled.
– 6. Services for producers are almost totally missing from Hungarian agriculture. As a consequence of the transformed ownership relations accompanying the change of the political system and the new landowners struggling against the difficulties of starting off required mechanised work as a service right from the beginning, together with advisory services supplementing skills, activities of acquisition and sale, etc. Unfortunately all these services are missing to the present. Those local governments may get into a favourable situation where the establishment of servicing enterprises, possibly extending over several villages, is assisted.
– 7. The repeated renewal of the traditions of regional production that had been based on the local conditions of nature and habitat and on the accumulated knowledge, and their adjustment to the present requirements is one of the reserves of sustainable development. The production of hungarica, such as ground paprika, onions, horseradish, meat products, or the ‘invention’ of new ones (like the honeyed walnut of Milota, honeyed dried plums of Szatmár) is a moneymaking opportunity for villages. (And sustainable just because of its nature that is based on habitats and on a production that preserves the landscape.) It is important that the village or the enterprise may be able to supply its products continuously, that quality should be guaranteed; labelling and the certificate of origin should indicate its speciality.
– 8. Local traditions linked to the habitat and the region may serve sustainability by being sources enhancing income through various events that introduce the locality and promote sales; in addition they forge the community of the given village. The restoration and preservation of the value of landscape may play a role in it, and it is primarily linked to village tourism, but it also has a business aspect.
Pressing practical issues
An early replacement of power and other machines of work and its subsidy are very important in the interest of sustainability because the new machines are energy-saving, lighter, they exercise less pressure on the soil, their emission and noise are less, they do not pollute the environment by dripping oil and require less servicing. (Thus a cultivator may save as much as 40% of cost.)
Cultivation economizing with water, by itself constituting a whole, a subsystem, is closely related to machines and tilling the soil, includes a technology retaining precipitation, covering of soil, species, hybrids, crop rotation, the role of animal husbandry counterbalancing drought, irrigation, some elements of melioration, the processing of basic materials, and forming self-help organisations.
In sustainable cultivation production that is adjusted to the habitat also means that it is not the yields, the size of price income and cost, but it is the proportion of input (cost) and output (price income) that is in the focus of decisions. The aim is to accomplish the largest possible difference between the two!
Organic, bio and ecological cultivation and integrated cultivation also can be fitted well into the system of sustainable production. However, in the case of bio products it is first of all the local market that has to be taken into account as domestic demand has been growing slowly. Exporting is a relatively good opportunity if it is controlled by the producers.
The food-producing function of agriculture cannot be neglected either in the present or in the future. It is one, if not the only source of livelihood for agricultural enterprises, particularly in small villages and in regions with such settlements. The utilisation of smaller areas that would supplement income and reduce cost is significant particularly for pensioners, big families and the unemployed. Further on, the enterprises are also taxpayers, improving the living conditions and the infrastructure of the inhabitants of the settlement by their contribution and presence.
*
The aim of the National Agrarian Environmental Programme is to spread the production methods that spare the environment, protect nature and preserve the landscape. Its basic principle is sustainability and quality. All this is intended to be realised by subsidies that may be granted to applicants in the following topics: programmes for the protection of agrarian environment, of integrated cultivation, ecological cultivation, utilisation of turf, aquatic habitat, sensitive natural areas, programmes of training, advising and of demonstrative farms. Shifting to a system of sustainable cultivation can be facilitated by these subsidies. Subsidies that are available as part of SAPARD, that is the programme of the EU for catching up, can be utilised only in co-financing, but they offer such opportunities that coincide with the sustainable development of settlements and agrarian enterprises.
Begegnungen20_Csepregi
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 20:113–119.
ISTVÁN CSEPREGI
The Situation of the Approximation and Enforcement of Environmental Law
It is not only a strategic task for Hungary, but it is based on international obligation to transpose the acquis communautaire and to enforce the adapted positive law according to Community requirements. The strategic significance of the issue does not require any further explanation, while in respect to the international obligation the Association Treaty signed on 16 December 1991 and Act I of 1994 promulgating it should be mentioned.
Naturally the processes of transposition and enforcement cannot proceed spontaneously. The preparation of legal norms (impact study, the processes of codification and legislation) as well as assuring the social, administrative and institutional conditions requires planning and phasing. It was in this spirit that the Government regulation No. 2084/1998. (IV. 8.) on the National Programme for the transposition of the acquis communautaire of the EU, and on the economic and strategic background of preparations (henceforward: ANP) was born on the basic issues of the accession negotiations between Hungary and the European Union, on the appointment of the negotiating delegation. Naturally planning requires constant feedback and correction as well, and it is well indicated by the fact that the ANP is modified almost each year [Government regulation 2184/1999 (VII. 23.), Government regulation 2149/2001 (VI. 20.), Government regulation 2088/2002 (III. 29.)].
The first and perhaps most important element of the transposition of the acquis communautaire is legal approximation (popularly known as legal harmonisation) which means the creation of national regulations corresponding to Community law as well as repealing rules contrary to directly applicable Community norms. For this process, equally containing positive as well as negative legislative elements, the following autonomous programmes of legal harmonisation have been created.
At the same time legal approximation, and later legal harmonisation cannot be regarded a static obligation, as the environmental acquis has been continuously enlarged and altered. It is worth paying special attention to it, as Community environmental legal norms constitute one of the most extensive systems of closely related norms in the EU. The total related positive law means 3-400 legal statutes, mostly in the form of Directives. (The obligation of Member States to make positive law is very significant because of the Directives.)
Government regulation 2004/1995. (I. 20.) |
On the planned tasks of legal harmonisation preparing Hungary’s accession to the European Union |
Government regulation 2174/1995. (VI. 15.) |
On the five-year programme of legal harmonisation |
Government regulation 2282/1996. (X. 25.) |
On the modification and single structure of programmes of legal harmonisation and internal market integration preparing accession to the European Union |
Government regulation 2212/1998. (IX. 30.) |
On the programme of legal harmonisation up to 31 December 2002 and on tasks related to the implementation of the programme |
Government regulation 2280/1999. (XI. 5.) |
On the modification of Government regulation 2212/1998. (IX.30.) on the programme of legal harmonisation up to 31 December 2002 and on tasks related to the programme of legal harmonisation |
Government regulation 2140/2000. (VI. 23.) |
On the programme of legal harmonisation up to 31 December 2002 and on the modification of the repeatedly modified Government regulation 2212/1998. (IX. 30.) |
Government regulation 2158/2001. (VI. 27.) |
On the modification of Government regulation 2212/1998. (IX. 30.) on the programme of legal harmonisation up to 31 December 2002 and on tasks related to the implementation of the programme |
Government regulation 2099/2002. (III. 29.) |
On the programme of legal harmonisation and tasks related to the implementation of the programme. |
The past and expectable process of legal approximation or harmonisation can be divided – arbitrarily – into the following periods:
– The period of recognition (realization)
– The period of alignment
– The period of conservancy (and of acting as a Member State after accession).
The period of recognition lasted from the signature of the Association Treaty (16 December 1991), and from the enacting of the Act on its promulgation (Act I of 1994) up to the approval of the first government strategy for legal harmonisation. During that period there was an international obligation for the approximation of Community and national law, but planning and the set of conditions for its institutionalisation was manifest only occasionally. Yet the period had undisputed achievements as well in the area of environmental protection (such as the temporary regulation of environmental assessment in 1993, and preparations for the Act on the general rules of environmental protection).
The period of alignment lasted from the first programme on legal harmonisation (January 1995) up to the end of 2002 and 2003, to the deadline of the implementation of the programme for legal harmonisation. (Principally, the deadline of the implementation was 31 December 2002, but the transposition of certain Community legal norms extended to the year 2003.) This period is characterised by the existence of programmes of legal harmonisation and by a constantly modified ANP, the two basic pillars of planned and phased legislation and enforcement. Legislation is characterised by the preparation and enacting of national legal norms in accordance with Community law (dumping of legal norms). In the field of environmental law it means dozens of legal norms related to environmental elements, effective factors, and detailed professional rules. The so-called “legal approximation- clause” found at the end of legal norms helps follow the process of legal harmonisation. This period is still in progress.
Conservancy, or the period of acting as a Member State begins after accession. From that date onwards we would be active participants of the process of Community law making, but the transposition of newly made legal norms would continue to be an obligation (with enhanced checking). From that date on specific attention should be paid to the internal coherence of Community and national law, and in view of legal harmonisation following the judicial practice of the EU would also be particularly important.
After having surveyed ‘phasing’, it is worth examining the present situation in brief. The annual progress reports of the Commission of the EU (the so-called country reports) indicated several problems regarding environmental legal approximation up to the year 2000 (that it is slow, there is significant arrearage in comparison with the envisioned phasing, the transposition of positive law related to water, air and waste management is particularly neuralgic, etc.).
The country report on the year 2001 referred to marked change, of which two elements are worth quoting word by word:
“Hungary has reached a very high level of harmonisation with the environmental acquis.”
“During the course of the implementation of its ambitious programme of legal approximation it has eliminated its earlier lags in the past year.”
Naturally there was an enormous quantity of preparatory work for legislation behind these two sentences; in 2001 about 46 national legal norms with the purpose of legal approximation were issued in the environmental sector, and their vast majority was prepared by the Ministry of the Environment. The process of legal approximation is naturally significantly slowed down by the fact that the implementation of environmental administration and the performance of authority tasks are shared by several ministries.
The present situation of environmental legal approximation is well demonstrated by the following list. The percentage presentation of the current [national] situation is given in the grouping approved by the EU. (Behind the percentages there is an extremely detailed, item-level comparison of the various Community legal norms and the national adapted ones.)
Sector |
Proportion of legal approximation |
Remark, or reference to further legislation |
Horizontal regulation |
100% |
The Directive 2001/42/EC on strategic assessment shall have to be adapted to national law |
Air Quality |
90% |
There also are Community legal norms the adaptation of which to national law go beyond the deadline for the implementation of the legal harmonisation programme (e.g. Directives 2001/16/EC and 81/2001/EC) |
Waste management |
84% |
The % of performance is reduced by the partial adaptation of Community rules concerning the waste of the TiO Vindustry, the reason being that there is no such industry in Hungary. |
Protection of the water quality |
80% |
The adaptation of the Directive 2000/60/EC [so-called water framework] results in a significant extent of change in legal approximation in 2002 and 2003. |
Nature protection |
94% |
The remaining task is primarily of implementation (e.g. development of the NATURA 2000 network). |
Prevention of industrial pollution and risk management |
85% |
|
Chemical materials and genetically modified organisms |
78% |
Legal approximation is significantly promoted by the adoption of the Directive 98/8/EC on biocides and of the Directive 2001/18/EC [on GMOs]. The all round development of regulations concerning asbestos waste among the wastes of building industry is a separate problem. |
Nuclear safety |
94% |
|
Noise protection |
90% |
The adaptation of the Directive 2001/25/EC means a serious step ahead, but its deadline figures in a later phase of the programme of legal harmonisation. |
The process of legal approximation hallmarked by the above figures as well has significantly contributed to the temporary closure of the Environmental Chapter during the accession negotiations.
Factors promoting the closure of the Chapter were the following:
– A successful process of legal approximation (legislation speeded up),
– A rapid and precise handing over of information necessary to – the shaping of – the Second Joint Environmental Position of the EU,
– Preparation of the plans for implementation required by the Commission of the EU,
– A constructive negotiation technique,
– Reduction of applications for transition period to 4 cases.
The latter ones, namely the approved applications for the transition period are the following in the case of environmental protection:
1) In the case of the Directive on packaging and packaging wastes:
– Hungary was granted transition period from the demand to recovery at least 50% of all the package wastes, and the recycle of at least 15% of the wastes of glass and plastic packaging materials by 31 December 2005. The transition period is needed to the development of the selective collection of communal wastes.
2) Regarding the Directive on the incineration of hazardous wastes:
– In the case of certain national facilities the satisfaction of EU requirements can be achieved by modernisation or total replacement only, due to the inadequate technological levels, the shortcomings of filtering of flue gas and of the continuous control of incineration technology. A transition period for this was granted until 30 June 2005.
3) In the case of the Directive on disposal and treatment of urban waste waters:
– Up to 31 December 2008 in the case of the so-called sensitive areas inclined towards eutrophication [assigned by Government decree 240/2000. (XII. 23.)],
– and in the case of agglomerations larger than 15,000 inhabitant-equivalents up to 31 December 2010,
– regarding requirements of certain factories corresponding to emission of 4000 or larger inhabitant-equivalents by 31 December 2008, Hungary was granted transition period to fulfil the provisions of the Directive.
4. In the case of the Directive on limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from large combustion plants:
– In the field of limiting the emission of air pollutants by large combustion plants a transitory period by 31 December 2004 was granted for the already existing plants for the development of technology regarding specified facilities both in the sectors linked and not linked to energy industry.
Further tasks of legal approximation may still be found in significant numbers despite the successful process of legislation during the past period. It can be divided into two major groups, one is the creation of comprehensive regulation in accordance with the various Directives, the other one is ‘fine tuning’ that is the technical adaptation of certain not yet adopted definitions. In the light of the legal harmonisation programme in force presumably it will mean the passing of two Acts (or packages of Acts) and about one dozen of government decrees and a similar number of ministerial decrees.
Some of the more delicate legal rules from the above circle are:
– In the sector of waste management evolving regulation for packaging wastes, for the cross-border transportation of wastes, and the treatment of some special kinds of wastes,
– In the sector of air quality – among others – the modernisation of regulations concerning some large combustion plants, supplementing regulation related to ozone depleting substances,
– Regarding the waters quality the all round transposition of the so-called water framework Directive,
– In the sector of industrial pollution prevention the creation of legal norms necessary to the national implementation of the eco-label system and the EMAS system.
In addition to the legislative tasks it is worth stepping towards issues related to enforcement. According to Grotius, “any dispute on law is in vain that does not exist in reality”, namely that is not implemented. The enforcement of legal norms is an even more difficult task of legal approximation than legislation. Let there be a list of a few factors making it difficult by way of illustration, that was contained by the country report of 2001:
– An efficient enforcement of law is made more difficult by the distribution of the tasks of environmental administration among six ministries, and their respective regional and local agencies. The country report stated that “there is need for the rationalisation of the entire system of environmental administration, in case it is not done serious difficulties of implementation are to be expected.”
– In accordance with the previous item the competency and tasks of the environmental authorities need rationalisation, particularly in respect of authoritative tasks, including the environmental inspectorates and the Chief Inspectorate for the Protection of the Environment and Nature.
– At the environmental inspectorates, there is unavoidably need for personnel development, to create an effective supervision.
– The system of environmental sanctioning requires revision.
– The realisation of measures serving implementation is necessary in certain specific environmental sectors (for instance the development of the planning system for waste management, the creation of adequate technical protection to landfills, etc.)
Naturally the above problems are also known to national legislators and implementers of law, however their all round solution may be achieved at the end of a longer process only. It can be regarded as a step ahead among others, that the air quality (emission) measuring network was transferred to the Ministry of the Environment, that the personnel is slowly but continuously enlarged primarily at the local authorities of the Ministry (environmental inspectorates, national park directorates), a uniform procedure for licensing the use of the environment within the revision of the licensing system related to environmental protection is introduced, etc.
In addition to a mechanical personnel development it is of particular importance that the existing and new administrative personnel should possess proper training and experience. In the case of the environmental inspectorates the proportion of those of higher education is 57% on national level, of secondary qualifications is 36%, while only 7% have completed primary education.
It is also natural that the implementation of the tasks of development mentioned above, particularly those of institutional development requires significant financial resources. In the case of the administrative branch it primarily burdens the central budget.
Collating all these factors it can be concluded that by the date of accession Hungary will be prepared for meeting Community requirements on an expectable level by the further continuation of the legislative process, by the further development of the set of environmental institutions and by strengthening enforcement, and by ensuring the necessary financial conditions.
Begegnungen20_Boday
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 20:73–89.
ÁDÁM BÓDAY
Laymen in Environmental Protection
Introduction
At the turn of the millennium environmental protection – with less than four decades of history behind it – exited from its strictly technical sphere and entered the wider realm of social science. It is obvious that today environmental protection is no longer a subject matter only for specialists, introducing protective measures, but it is the accompaniment and consequence of human actions. Its definition and technical means have become spheres of multidisciplinary (research), supported and enhanced by the tools of the social sciences.
Because of its multifaceted, general nature, the science of environmental protection has become diversified and the different spheres appear to be almost independent fields of knowledge. Not surprisingly, it is often difficult to draw a dividing line among its various “disciplines,” because they are interrelated fields. As a science, it deals with physical interrelations in the natural sciences – physics, chemistry, biology – in the classical sense and also with individual, and super-individual social relations, with interrelations between the living and non-living natural environment and with connections between the natural and artificial environments.
Environmental protection appears as a moral and ethical issue for everyone and compels individuals to formulate questions and answers. In turn, the process encourages the expansion of knowledge and shapes the individual’s consciousness of the environment. Such consciousness influences one’s actions and guides one toward correct, “ideal” behaviour in matters of the environment. Consequently, the individual will feel responsibility for the cause of the environment and this, in turn, encourages him – in various ways, to be sure, – to weigh the consequences of his actions. Such considerations help us to understand the interrelations between actions and their consequences – according to our own ethical standards.
This short essay will attempt to explore the role of the civil (laymen’s) sphere in environmental protection at the turn of the millennium. It will deal with personal sensitivity toward the environment, with the development of a person’s involvement in its protection; it will also explore the system of institutional frameworks, their expectations and the process of information reaching the individual. In other words, it will consider some characteristics of communications about the environment.
The Social Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Europa Institute Budapest jointly organized a conference on April 17, 2002, entitled “Laymen’s cooperation in the protection of the environment.”1 Discussions with invited experts2 provided an opportunity to compare Hungarian environmental conditions with Austrian activities of environmental protection, the leading practice in Europe.
In the Hungarian case the legal framework for the protection of the environment is provided by Law LIII., enacted in 1995. Its section VIII, paragraphs 95-100 deal with the participation of individual citizens and civil associations in the process of the protection of the environment. According to the law, it is the right of citizens to call the attention of the users of the environment and of the state authorities to the pollution or endangerment of the environment. It is a citizen’s right to participate in the process related to the environment personally or through his representative. Paragraph 98 deals with the legal standing of associations (plaintiffs), guarantees their right to legal representation, their participation in proceedings, their right to receive prior notification related to legal proceedings and their right to offer opinions. According to paragraphs 100 and 98, section 2, point C and the section 3, the right to present opinions is also available for representatives of a trade/profession concerning issues that touch on their field of expertise.
Citizens must possess appropriate information in order to be able to exercise their lawful rights. Such information reaches them through communications about environmental protection, as they spread and become part of their everyday life. General knowledge about environmental protection by the citizenry determines the level of sensitivity and caring about the environment. The success of the initiatives about environmental protection is determined by citizens’ organizations and expertise.
When one examines the literature about the protection of the environment, one thing is obvious; in spite of the relatively recent past of environmental science, it has a considerable number of expert publications. This literature has one characteristic; every field of science considers it to be its own. Yet it is also expressed through two methods. One of these is a flood of expensive books written by highly respected authors, published by large publishing houses, which can be found on the shelves of every well-stocked library. The other is the collection of equally valuable works – at least valuable for the discipline – issued through various technologies in small numbers, the so-called “civilian” literature (NGO), written by enthusiastic authors who want to reach out to those effected by the problems. Thanks to the development of the discipline, several fields of knowledge are now involved in promoting the cause of the protection of the environment, on almost every level.
Receiving information is, therefore, the right of civil society, guaranteed by law, and it is obtainable. However, for effective communication, the change of attitudes on both sides would be necessary. Individuals must be able to perceive the principles that determine their sphere of life and determine their existence.
What is the Environment?
We define the environment – in a somewhat selfish manner – as the living and lifeless surroundings of human beings. It provides the framework for human existence, for the activities and interactions of mankind. From the earliest times, the environment’s basic elements have been land, water, air and fire. These basic natural elements have always offered fundamental challenges, since human population – similarly to other life forms – have an ecological maximum where humans are able to perform their natural functions comfortably. The maximum may be summarized as follows;
– 1500-2000 calories of daily food intake;
– 2-3 litres of clear water daily;
– 20-30 cubic meters of clean air every day;
– 18-34 degrees Celsius of air temperature;
– Sufficient living space of various individual sizes and activities.
Environmental elements are not confined within such maxima. The answer of the living world to deviations from the maximum is the ability to adjust that placed pressures on every population during the evolutionary process. During the evolution of mankind it was not thicker fur, but the domestication of fire; not physical power, but the ability to form associations and create tools that is, socialization and intelligence, that have become the means of adjustment to natural circumstances. Adjustment, with the help of creativity and skilful handcrafts, had succeeded so well that mankind had become a cosmopolitan race and spread all over the globe. The outstanding ability of adjustment was man’s chief advantage; his ability to think was enhanced and the invention of ever better tools occurred not as a consequence of evolution, but of communication between individuals. The spread of a favourable characteristic did not have to take generations. This development led to the escalation and exponential growth of knowledge.
Civilization
Humans have created and developed a meta-environment, that is, civilization, by their ability to think in a more complex way than other living creatures. A major characteristic of civilization is man’s ability to lift common concepts out of his value system and replace them with abstractions. Civilization in a broad sense means a higher level of achievement in the development and material knowledge of a society, a concept signifying its material means, technology, and science.3
An unintended result of this “higher level of achievement” is the harm caused by civilization, the unfavourable influences of the changes caused by civilization to living organisms, [...] but we shall discuss these effects below.
A civilization is an ideological system operating hierarchically through effective transfer of knowledge, by which humans attempt to satisfy their needs at the expense of their natural requirements (through the development of material means). In other words, man’s value system and priorities have changed. His natural freedom and needs have been restricted and forced into a limited background.
The human race, by taking advantage of its evolutionary advantages, has occupied the top of the food chain and crowned itself the king of the universe. In spite of its rapid intellectual development, it brought along many ancient characteristics and instincts in this journey which, as a consequence of adjustment to the circumstances of life, had lost their original functions. For instance, such an instinct is manifest in behaviour concerning the development of hierarchy in social relations. This behavioural trait is fundamentally determined by aggressiveness. As a social being, the individual attempts to set himself into the rank of the line and thus he contributes to the development of a hierarchy within a group. Hierarchy determines the behaviour of the social group through the example provided by the strongest, most experienced, bravest individual. By this, it shows strength to outsiders, and provides advantages for the group in obtaining food. Rank determines the amount of share an individual receives from jointly obtained goods, and his rank also determines the inheritability of individual characteristics. A position in rank is acquired through struggle and competition and it possesses symbolic characteristics. In everyday life one can determine another’s rank by recognizing the meaning of symbols without the need for a struggle. Struggles usually represent efforts to change one’s position in the ranks. Humans have developed their own method in this matter, called rules of social behavior.4
Civilization also means the (civil) hierarchy of individuals who are familiar with a system of behaviour and observe the rules of this system. This is what is called society.
Society has created conditions reaching beyond the basic elements; this is called the social environment. It is the realm where social life and interactions take place. The goal of environmental protection is the development of harmony between the social- and the natural environments.
The basic components of the social environment are human beings, organized in communities and their institutions. Society and its values have been concentrated around several ideologies. Their common character includes organization, whose principles are part of the knowledge of the respective community, known as a social contract (or in modern terms, a constitution. Trans). A social contract is a theory of the emergence of rights according to which the state and of its members’ rights are the result of a conscious contract among human beings [...] According to its proponents, humans cede certain individual rights (or parts of them), characteristics of a natural existence and transfer them to the state in order to protect their personal security and the institutions of private property. People conclude social contracts because they believe that social and individual interests can be reconciled by the state. If a ruler should not govern according to natural laws, however, and endangered the lives of his subjects, (acted against the rules of self-preservation), then the people may refuse to obey him, the social contract is annulled, and natural conditions are reestablished.5
The emergence of environmental problems, including the pollution of the environment, represents obvious breaches of the social contract, because individuals make sacrifices in order that the state’s institutions protect their interests. The deterioration of the environment endangers the basic elements of society, their maximum condition.
What is the nature of such endangerment? As a result of a long line of detrimental compromises, the condition of the globe is deteriorating. No one will ever say that his goal is the pollution of the environment, because this would make no sense. The problem is presented by the fact that when the impacts of creative activities are evaluated, it is not the long-range impacts, but short-term individual profits that provide the motives for the planning of a given activity. In most cases we minimize the adverse effects as disturbing side influences, when the environment is being polluted. We make compromises in almost every one of our actions, when we produce food and clothing, build our dwelling, participate in transportation or amusements and especially when our activities concern earning money. When we evaluate the impact of our everyday regular-, or occasional decisions, the possibility of endangering the environment receives little consideration. We make decisions too often at the expense of the environment and, consequently, it becomes a routine matter for us to disregard it or undervalue it.
We consider developed democracies to be the highest stage of civilization. One characteristic of the developed democracies is a type of decision making, which considers the interests of the community on the basis of decisions provided by society itself. In other words, “democracy means making decisions on the basis of the interests of the majority, in a manner that also considers the defence of the interests of the minority.”6 We can safely say, therefore, that the protection of the environment is in the interest of the entire community. It is a strange fact that we sometimes willingly abandon our right for a healthy environment, included in the social contract, in order to increase our personal well-being and wealth. The process is then conserved by the will of the majority. The will of the majority has been in operation against natural conditions for a long time. What is wrong with the thinking of the majority? It is the individual. The individual is in the position to change the current situation.
I might possess absolute values as a single individual; I may be fat or skinny, happy or sad, healthy or sick. Yet as the quality of the environment deteriorates, I can only be sick, skinny and sad.
According to my place in society, I may be – besides the above mentioned factors – civilized or uncivilized, useful or harmful, friendly or grumpy, stupid or smart, rich or poor, protective or destructive of the environment. However, these characteristics which originate in social interactions are determined by existing social norms, by the social contract not in an absolute, but in a relative manner. I must instantly ask; “if the existing social contract does not take steps to prevent the deterioration of the environment, – or even provides approval for such a process, – could its value system be a valid measure for comparison or evaluation?”
Yes, it could be.
Why? Let us examine the details of our civilized thinking! Our thinking is based on our internal convictions, on our preferences and priorities. One of the fundamental forms of the acquisition of human knowledge is systematic learning based on experience. The other form is instinctive comparison based on ranking and by other known symmetries. Learning on the basis of experience is a process which provides very solid knowledge and logical points that leads to the recognition of obvious connections (“the hot stove burns my hand” which happens once in a lifetime but makes us careful with hot items for the rest of our lives). Ranking and comparisons are present in every one of our actions, they mean shades and degrees of differentiation and, consequently, we use them during every decision process (better, bigger, nicer, faster, more comfortable, finer, etc.) We make decision solely on such bases. Naturally, comparisons happen mostly on the basis of internal values. This is the point at which internal values have special significance; they are built upon the influences provided by our civilization, by our family and by our experiences, and we maintain them from the cradle to the grave. The value system is active throughout our entire life span, it cannot be disconnected and it is part of our experiences. It helps us understand interrelations which cannot be learned. Our language calls this ”common sense knowledge” Our value system is the basis of our principles, of our convictions; our logic is built upon it and our feelings find an anchor in it. The value system makes it possible for us to recognize differences of shades and degrees. It may also mislead us by its subjectivism. I would like to reflect on this process by three typical examples;
– 1. It is comfortable to go to work by car, but it is detrimental for the environment. At the same time, I have not yet seen anyone suffocating because of exhaust fumes (experience = 0) , but you are aware that it is not good because you know people with lung cancer (negative experience) and others who were in an accident (negative experience) but compared to the truck you saw yesterday, your car is environment friendly (positive experience) , it has no detrimental effect (positive experience) and it is convenient for you (positive experience), therefore, you compare, (0 and negative, and negative, and, positive and positive, and equals positive) and you are taking the car.
– 2. A volcanic eruption causes tremendous air pollution in comparison to which the emission of my furnace is minimal; therefore, why should I lower my thermostat when I have no means to curb a volcanic eruption?
– 3. The American automobiles use, on an average, 18 litres of fuel per hundred kilometres; my car’s 9 litres fuel consumption is really environmentally friendly in comparison, so why should I not use it with the knowledge that pollution does not depend on me, since in comparative terms, I improve average fuel consumption in the world even if only to a small degree.
Knowledge of the Environment; Recognition of Interrelationships
Knowledge of the environment is a quantitative process of learning that can be continuously expanded. The process develops when the knowledge of the values of the environment is coupled with familiarity of the impact of human activities. Such thinking is not new, since people who have depended upon the condition of the environment, have watched it consciously and carefully, in order to prevent its deterioration as a consequence of their actions. The loss of the knowledge of the environment came about because of the influence of civilization. As the result of this influence, human beings gradually became free of environmental conditions (they dress up when it is cold; they heat up their abode; when it is dark, they turn on the lights; they fertilize bad lands; dig wells; travel at great speed, etc) and their impact upon their surroundings are regulated by their interests.
The process of becoming independent of the environment resulted in the fact that, during one’s lifetime, one paid less and less attention to the physical and biological environment – and life has become more and more comfortable. Besides the loss of interrelationships, new material values were built into man’s value system. This led to the devaluation of the natural environment. Our advanced contemporary civilization – experienced altogether by only two-fifth of the population of the globe, and enjoyed only by one-fifth – developed a society of self indulgence and (material) accumulation and with it, one of waste. At the beginning of the acceleration of development, a few exceptional thinkers who had observed the interrelationships rang the environmental alarm bells. This brought the issues of the condition of the environment to the focus of public attention and resulted in the recognition of the fact that there has never been a greater need for our sobering up with the help of knowledge of the environment and its interrelationship with life.
Care for the Environment
Knowledge of the environment, coupled with a willingness and ability to act on its behalf, are the bases of the concept of care for the environment. The dissemination of this concept means (with cooperation by the individual’s natural value system and information) that the expectations for the care of the environment can be expressed in individual action. This is the personal cooperation that can be expected from the individual in order to slow down and even stop the current speed by which the environment is being degraded and the harm already caused to be healed. However, common sense, expressed in the expansion of consciousness of the necessity to care for the environment, is in logical contradiction to the special position of humankind – as I mentioned this above when discussing the harmful influence of civilization.
Human Monoculture
The example previously taken from agriculture illustrates our culture best and provides a parallel between monocultural, energy-intensive production methods and human civilization. I include a few remarks about the concept as follows;
– 1. Monoculture; it is a practice, based on the mass-production of a specific species, coupled with chemicals and high levels of mechanization. Its means include: chemical tools, continuing improvement of the stock, genetic manipulation. Its result: pollution of the soil and surface water, reduction of the number of natural varieties of living beings, unfavourable impact of pesticides. The essential goal of the technology used is to protect the species against incalculable natural influences.
– 2. Energy-intensive production: increased use of energy in the interest of higher yields.
Civilization is mankind’s monoculture in which everything has become subordinated to the satisfaction of human needs (basic and extended). The outcome is waste which is the by-product of the developed countries, leading to the impoverishment of underdeveloped societies. Further refining the term, we may speak of the monoculture of the members of developed civilizations. The lengthening of natural life expectancy with contributions by the modern chemical industry and medical science, complete comfort and luxuries and the extension of wealth, became civilization’s dominant factors. At the same time we are proud of the fact that in the midst of our comfortable lives, not shared by too many people, we have a full stomach and spend some energy by worrying about the status of our environment. The better-to-do people (I repeat, maximum 10 % of the world’s population) make sacrifices to improve the condition of the environment; through their customary consumption practices they give priority to products that are supposedly environment-friendly, and which are, in most cases, more expensive. Naturally, the market will produce so-called environmental-friendly goods, because these are in demand and this is the method of maintaining consumption. It is also obvious that less environment-friendly mass products will cost less but they nevertheless remain on the shelves. Poorer people who comprise the majority of the world’s population have no chance to buy environment-friendly goods even with the maintenance of existing consumption levels.
Sometimes knowledge of the environment causes guilty feelings. In order to calm such feelings, the market will provide a solution; it offers steps to be taken against environmental damage in distant lands which arouse feelings of solidarity. One must not do anything else but be sorry for the poor seals, sea mammals, and the three-toed monkeys of Madagascar that are on the verge of extinction. We may be confronted by and feel sympathetic every day for the victims of natural disasters, the species that are marching toward extinction. Yet, we still gladly eat cans of crab from the North Sea, tropical fruits and buy inexpensive clothes from Bangladesh.
It is interesting to note that we do not have to do anything besides the feeling of solidarity; we do not have to clean oil-polluted trash, nor do we have to collect garbage strewn and piled neatly along the edge of the forest. It is enough to condemn these facts to ourselves and explain at home while sitting in an armchair in front of the TV set, that we would never commit such acts against the environment. We would even go further; we would stop at any price the harming of the environment in the area of our living space (in our immediate surroundings! Because we would not want to be confronted with the by-products of civilization, with the by-products that are actually part of our life style.) Environmental literature calls such an attitude NIMBY- (Not In My Back Yard) effect. This induces us to make every available effort to stop the creation of technologies for environmental protection in our immediate living space. The only problem is that the objects in question will be built in someone else’s neighbourhood (garbage dumps, compost-heaps, refuse-burners, etc.). Their building is difficult because they face continuous social resistance.
The Role and Activities of Institutions, Associations and Civil Societies in the Protection of the Environment
The discussions conducted with Austrian and Hungarian participants of the conference mentioned in the Introduction of this essay, dealing with the role of civilians in environmental protection, called attention to interesting parallels as well as to significant differences. The participants in these discussions were outstanding representatives of national or regional institutions or scientific associations, an Austrian-Hungarian firm for environmental protection and representatives of the Austrian party of Greens.
The legal frameworks, administrative institutions and social organizations of environmental protection had already been well established on national and regional levels in both countries. These nation-wide institutions possess large networks of international relations and maintain connections with various craft- and civil societies through delegated representatives, environmental conferences, seminars, continuing education, etc.
Representatives from both countries consider scientific research to be the “hinterland” of dealing with and protecting the environment. The majority of research is directed toward the organizations of sustainable production in environmental protection systems, related to industrial activities. The area of research of special interest to the Austrian university’s institution concerns waste management and the elimination of environmental damage. 95 percent of the activities of the institution are supported by the market, its experts participate in the entire sphere of scientific life and they acquired great respect in industry. There is a great demand for education and expertise in economics and environmental protection in the Hungarian institution (30 percent of the graduates find jobs in the profession) by organs of environmental protection and counselling services. However, companies dealing directly with technologies of environmental protection show less interest in the graduates. The expert preparation of Hungarian civil associations is varied, yet their participation in education and education-related programs is significant.
The Austrian-Hungarian company is a member of the national organization of associations dedicated to the protection of the environment. It conducts daily discussions with local autonomous governments and takes on the role of supporter of initiatives. Its representatives in civil societies and the local activists are members of the Committee of Social Supervision created by the company. It provides appropriate information and expert advice and organizes programs for environmental protection.
The differences between the organizations of the two countries are rooted in economics, ideology and standards of life. This is especially evident in the value systems and in the consciousness about the environment which had a good base in Austria to start with; there was no sharp break in their development and traditional life styles have always been valued. The Austrians believe that the condition of the environment is an important component of the quality of life. Nature is being considered as capital. The concepts of environmental protection have always followed lines in Austria that characterized developed countries, and public consciousness of environmental sensitivity is supported by the media. The high state of environmental consciousness in Austria is proven by the political successes of the Green party.
The coordination of existing possibilities and cooperation among administrative- and scientific institutions would help in the solution of problems existing in Hungary; the cooperation between these organs on the one hand and the local, regional, national and international institutions on the other would also help. Well-prepared mass-communication media could also contribute to the cause.
In summary:
– Society ensures legal preconditions, since the citizens have a constitutional right to a healthy environment. Regulations for the protection of the environment also ensure public participation in the work of the administration.
– Every public personality considers the role of civilians in environmental protection to be a determining factor.
– A primary condition for the development of environmental consciousness is effective communication.
– Environmental protection is a continuously evolving and changing process. Appropriate education is a must.
– Everyone is attempting to develop good relations with the social organizations of environmental protection.
– The political representation of “green” principles requires an effective, hierarchical organization. This is contrary to the traditional network of the organizational structure of environmental protection.
Societal organization determines the spread and support of principles of environmental protection. Our survey reflects the expected results, according to which the use of effective channels of communication will prevent a clash of interests among the various social strata. Conflicts usually develop because of incomplete or interrupted communications. In addition, the development of environmental consciousness does not occur during the lifetime of one single generation, and an important question is , “to what measure and by what sort of support the success of environmental interests can be realized.”
What is Expected of the Individual and by Whom?
Research shows that the role of civilians (laymen) is fundamental for the protection of the environment, yet such a role is not considered unanimously useful. Fortunately, no one doubts the fact that the role of knowledge about the environment is important and that the usefulness of information is unquestionable. Let us examine the expectations of administrators, of the participants in the social organizations (NGOs), the workers in scientific spheres and participants in economic life.
Expectations of the Administration
The (state) administration is in a difficult position because it has to ensure the right of the citizens “to a healthy environment,” included in the constitution, yet the duty of the citizens to protect the environment and correct the harm caused to it is nowhere written down. Only means of economic- and criminal prosecution are available for this purpose. The use of the available means is, in practice, limited; they include continuous prohibitions (within limits), and the introduction of economic penalties (penalties for pollution, taxes on production and transportation, payments for usage, etc.) aimed at stopping increasing damage done to the environment. These means eventually burden the consumers who are not directly interested in decreasing the load on the environment, but are struggling to maintain or improve an increasingly expensive lifestyle. Their expenses are constantly increasing because of the need to protect the environment. The maintenance of consumption whose energy usage is also constantly increasing, results in further damage to the environment. The amount of penalties handed out by the welfare states is limited. The basis for the determination of responsibility for environmental damage is conscious behaviour that can be proven to be contrary to the laws. Yet the laws serving as deterrent are not sufficiently strong for the purpose.
Perhaps the administration had not yet formulated its expectations for citizen behaviour. This appears to be a lack of principles. Because the knowledge of the rapidly increasing size of legal documentation of environmental protection (several tens of thousands of pages) – even in a selective form – can not be expected, nor can it be required from the citizenry. Yet regulations about the protection of the environment permeate our everyday lives. Sometimes they appear in the form of irritating pettiness, inconvenience and intolerable expenses. (Remember the requirement for the inspection of vehicles with a view of environmental protection, the “green card,” whose impact on the environment is theoretically good, but whose practice is deplorable. Or the investments in building sewage system, the charges for their usage and payments demanded for garbage collections.) Actions that encourage protective behaviour on behalf of the environment, fear of corruption and material difficulties, are limiting the laws’ effectiveness. It should be noted, however, that administrative support for the effectiveness of energy usage must be appreciated, even though it received undue criticism.
Therefore, the administration is required to define the rules in a better way and enforce them during social interactions; it is also the institution that supervises them and is responsible for their observance. The task is humongous and it requires an effective transmission of information and a flexible institutional structure. The administration must develop channels of two-way communication with every participant, because it needs the most precise information available for the mechanisms of decision-making. Because of the characteristics of regulations, the administration needs the feedback. This is one of the reasons for the need to inform the citizenry and for their inclusion in the process of environmental protection. The (state) administration needs and expects to receive information and active cooperation from the citizens.
Expectations of Civil Associations for Environmental Protection
We must avoid generalizations because of the multicoloured character of the civilian sphere, but the determination of common characteristics is still possible.
A common aim of all social organizations involved in the process is to direct attention to issues of environmental protection. Beyond this task, the activities of most NGO-s are directed to the actual protection and improvement of the environment.7 They provide physical space for the exchange of information, for thinking together. Therefore, they are the organizations having direct communications with individuals.
Civil societies expect individuals to attend to and accept responsibility for the maintenance of the environment. They should gather around important personalities treating the cause of the environment as their own. Economic factors seldom influence the activities of civil associations because they are supporting a value system that can hardly be expressed in material terms. The civil associations expect decisions to be made by individuals.
These societies are helpful in advancing the cause of the environment. This is their role. Even if their formulas are not comfortable for everyone, they help the cause by focusing attention on it. However, they must avoid creating illusions of power by their protests, illusions supported by illogical arguments and follow a script that states, Can we say no? “Yes.” Then no.”
The expectation is that we should have an opening toward the outside world, notice our immediate surroundings, let us know it, do something about it and protect it. We must help each other and the cause if we can accept its goals by harnessing our personal convictions and synergy and take advantage of a team spirit. Such behaviour could have important results; by setting a personal example, we may convince people of the correctness of our cause, ultimately resulting in the improvement of the environment.
Expectations of the Scientific Sphere
This issue is more complex than one would expect. In an ideal world,8 science should be value-neutral; it is, in most instances, result-centred, its explorations and discoveries always have limited goals. Scientific discoveries and innovations always mean new combinations and syntheses of knowledge, helped by thorough concentration in a given field. Its complexity is explained by the fact that during the evolution of modern science it has not always been considerate of the environment, and the necessity of absolute protection of environmental values has not been included in the axiomatic system of every field of science. The science of environmental protection first appeared only as a reaction to the harm caused by the “evolution” of general science, as the result of the unsupportable damage done to the environment. It was an independent area of research and only later did it spread to every scientific field. This may appear as the consequence of the exchange of information of environmental values for the sake of research but such an approach would lead to moralizing. Let us examine the way general science may become part of the cause of the environment.
The task of science is the exploration and description of environmental values, and the communication of these values. Such activities are basically informative; ideally, they develop and increase consciousness of the environment and the “green” value system.9
The scientific sphere does not expect anything from the individual, except that he should listen to his common sense and do not reject the offer of help. Today, almost every field of science is involved in one way or another with issues of environmental protection.
The Expectations of Economic Leadership
From the point of view of environmental protection, regardless of the objects of commerce and services (no matter what they sell), they expect us to turn our attention to products that protect the environment. This demand will eventually move supplies in this direction. However, we had reached a point at which demand is increasingly the result of the classic influence of advertisements. Environmental protection has become the fashion; it follows modern marketing practices and business innovations, and it is differentiated from mass products only by its novelty; it makes differentiation in status possible, because only a few can afford to follow its course. According to current fashions, the person who is capable to judge what sort of consumption and health hazard is represented by the goods he buys, is a wealthy one. The environmental value is included in the judgment of quality. There are a few people who enjoy privileges of their personal situation. They are not influenced by advertisements and their personal interests induce them to make decisions based on natural laws. In developed societies these people – who do not even possess a TV set – are considered to be poor.
The expectations of participants in economic life are not necessarily based on personal interests, but on the interests of their own environment. However, this, by itself, is not an objective value. The social judgment of the participants in economic life is biased. Yet, we are also part of their sphere of life since everyone participates in economics to a smaller or greater extent, which means that we have to make judgments by ourselves. In such a situation moderation should be a value and it should be practiced in economic life. However, understanding the damage done to the environment and to economic life in general is as yet undeveloped and it is disproportionate to the facts. The leaders of industry are often called to account in the courts much easier – and they can expect more serious penalties – when they tumbled with the balance sheets of their companies, than if they harmed the environment.
The Individual’s Expectations of His Own- and Others’ Behaviour
“Self control” cannot be exercised over others. The responsibility is ours alone. We make decisions and act accordingly. It is a mistaken belief that expects the solution of the problems of the defence of the environment only by others (by the state, by government, by science, economic conditions and by our neighbours). We must look around us and define our tasks in order to improve the situation. It is enough if we keep the tasks in mind and occasionally act upon them.
The Role of Families; the “Model”
There is a decisive influence in caring about the environment in the knowledge, provided by and practiced on the level of individual skills. These skills must be acquired very early in life, beginning almost in the cradle. Examples observed at home determine later behaviour patterns and customs during the individual’s entire life span. Children may also carry home correct behaviour patterns and they may insert learned environmental values into the value system of their families.
The family is the number one organization for the protection of the environment. This is the smallest and most effective unit in which environmental protection is realized in a practical way. In the developed countries, where the environment is not in conflict with living conditions, the family is in a relatively easy situation, since it is based on traditions and responsibilities.10 Therefore, family traditions based on natural laws in the developed countries (the transmission of customs) and responsibilities (relations of dependency) exclude – in the optimal case – the primacy and absolute supremacy of short-range individual interests.
The Role of Ratios
A value system determines the rank of values – the rank of characteristics of quality – while ratios determined quantitative characteristics by means of comparisons and relativity. There is a need to develop one’s sense of proportions because by its help, we may organize previous knowledge and experiences about our understanding of the environment. The understanding of proportionality and of ratios help us in our orientation throughout our lives, from participating in traffic to understanding social hierarchies. The outcome of the acquisition of the sense of proportion is a balanced existence. Everybody attempts to achieve a balanced existence based on a personal value system and a sense of proportions. This provides for a sense of happiness through positive feedbacks. A sense of proportions is also an accompaniment for life, similarly to a sense of values. However, in contrast to the sense of values, a sense of proportions is a constantly changing process. With the development of our sense of proportions, we are capable of understanding processes that go beyond the limits of our own physical-experiential knowledge. This process enables us to weigh and understand the consequences of our actions even before we had taken them. This also enables us to estimate the quantitative results of our decisions before committing ourselves to action. The two personal qualities, namely, the stability and development of a sense of proportions and value systems comprise the absolute value of wisdom.
We can also determine what is good for us personally and how good it is, by the help of our sense of proportions. We can also observe the damages our action causes for the environment. In the course of our daily compromises, internal and external interests are being reconciled.11 A correct sense of proportions provides the basis for sustainable developments, for production that can be sustained by existing resources.12 The basic condition for environmental protection and sustainable development is the manifestation of a sense of values and of proportions. In other words, it is wisdom.
Conclusions
Environment is a subjective category. The living and lifeless environment of mankind are relative concepts, their condition depends on humanity itself. The thinking of human beings is based on their personal value systems. We behave and act according to this system. Actions are in mutual relations with the environment. Such mutuality may be of negative, positive and neutral influence on nature. The conditions of the environment are deteriorating. Therefore, we must make decisions based on neutral or advantageous results for the environment. Such decisions are always made by individuals. Individuals act according to their decisions. The conditions of the environment will improve as a result of the general decisions of individuals.
Notes
1
A joint conference by the Austrian and Hungarian partners was held in the Jacobin room of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA) April 17, 2002, with the following presentations; Prof. Dr. Sándor Kerekes, “Strategic Research of the MTA; Social Recognition of Environmental Policies;” Professor Dr. Stefan Schleicher, “From Environmental Policies to Sustainable Development; Lessons of the Austrian Experience;” Katalin Hargitai, “The 6th Environmental Action Plan and NGO Involvement;" Prof. Dr. Gyula Bándi, “Implementing the Requirements of Environmental Registration;” Dr. István Csepregi, ‘Administrative Implementation;" Dr. Elisabeth Freytag, “EU-coordination in Austria.”
2
Questions that formed the basis of discussions included; “What is your opinion about the grounding of laymen in environmental protection?” “What sort of conditions exist for the activities of associations for environmental protection?” “What are your relations with civil societies of environmental protection?” “What is your opinion about the political participation of the greens?” The following persons responded to our questions; Andrea Elek (OKT), Sándor Kerekes, (BKÉ), György Maár (Pyrus-Rumpold LTD), Éva Csobod and László Perneczky, (Central- and East European Center for Environmental Protection), Elisabeth Freytag (Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, EU Affairs (environment) of Austria, Peter Jordan (ÖOSI), Wolfgang Staber (Montanuniversitat Leoben), Éva Glawischnig (Die Grünen).
3
Akadémiai Kislexikon
4
Roger Baker, Ecological Psychology, 1968.
5
Akadémiai Kislexikon
6
See Dr. Gyula Bándi, Környezetvédelmi kézikönyv (Handbook of Environmental Protection) (Budapest, KJK, 1995.)
7
REC: Problems, Progress and Possibilities (Szentendre, 1997).
8
Bill Onasch, “Labor, Oil and the Environment,” (Internet, 2001).
9
Ferenc Glatz, Tudománypolitikai reformról, Akadémiáról, (Budapest, 2002).
10
A. Taylor and W. Preiser, “The Home, School and Neighborhood as Mini-Environments,” (Internet, 1996).
11
Daryl Reed, Ethics and Economics. Reference Book, 1994.
12
Ibid.
Begegnungen20_Bandi
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 20:105–112.
GYULA BÁNDI
Implementation of the Requirements of the Environmental Acquis Communautaire
Shaping the environmental acquis of the EU into domestic law is approaching its completion. From the second half of 2000 onwards we have made dozens of legal norms expressly corresponding to Community law, with a reference regularly included in the closing provisions as follows:
“The order, in harmony with Article 3 of Act I of 1994, promulgating the Europe Agreement on the establishment of association between the Republic of Hungary and the European Communities and its Member States, signed on 16 December 1991 in Brussels, contains regulations that are compatible with the following legal rules of the European Communities ...”1
However, the question is not only whether a regulation can be harmonised with EC law, but also how far it is implemented in practice, and whether it is implemented at all. “The process of legal approximation is generally described as containing three elements: transposition, implementation, enforcement ... Effective transposition at first requires the understanding of the practices and abilities of implementation and enforcement, second, the legal text itself also considers implementation and enforcement...”2 One of the perhaps best known experts of environmental legislation has written the following about it: “The implementation of environmental legislation is the greatest problem facing environmental legal experts today. They maintain that the national, EU and global environments would be in a much better condition if all the regulations aiming at the protection of the environment were effectively implemented.”3
Consequently one may not be surprised at why the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme4 considers the implementation of the currently existing legal norms as one of the five strategic areas deserving special attention.5
For the sake of comparison it is worth mentioning that the Fifth Action Programme (1993-2000) had already dealt with the issue of the enforcement of Community law, grouping proposals related to the necessary changes under four major headings:
Tasks related to legislation itself were put into the first group in order to achieve the improvement of law making, as efficient law enforcement can only be expected on the basis of adequate legal norms. The Action Programme classified the following as such:
– A profound selection and preparation of the legal institutions;
– The need for adequate consultations before the acceptance of various legal instruments and standard regulations;
– During the course of legislation regulations related to law enforcement should be arranged for;
– Following legislation programmes serving also practical assertion directed towards the regulatory area in question should be developed, such as work sessions.
The enforcement of Community law would primarily require the following according to the Programme:
– Transposition to national law
– Programmes and control programmes for the reduction of pollution
– Development of organisations and processes of law enforcement
– A system of reporting on the implementation of Community law
– Supervision of penalties and other sanctions
– Transparency, particularly in the sphere of licensing.
The above sequence is an interesting mixture of legislative tasks, institutional development and practical issues hence it cannot be regarded as a uniform one. This is not surprising as the previous Action Programme was far less concentrated; in addition to a number of overly general questions it contained several details without a proper order of precedence.
Generally speaking the Sixth Action Programme is far more purposeful, it pays attention to a less number of areas and devotes less volume to individual issues.
It is the development of the complex system of legal institutions that figures in the first place among the issues of the implementation of law, and that too meeting the principle of the ‘polluter pays’ in a broad sense of the term. As the author of the present writing I have dealt with the principle and the complexity of the legal institutions, or the principle of responsibility in other terms, similarly and at several places,6 hence I consider the proposals of the Programme as eminently important. The complex system of legal institutions extends from prevention up to the development of systems of responsibility far more rigorous than the current one. If the Action Programme is scrutinized from this aspect it turns out that in fact not a single instrument can be left out, on the one side the voluntary means should be mentioned, whereas at the other end there are the strict rules of the penal code and of liability for damage. With the latter ones the Community has reached an area that has been consistently left out of its sphere of interest.
A broad scale of legal institutions, together with legislation comprising a significant area, also demand the establishment of the internally harmonised system of legislation. Eminent examples to it are offered by those areas of Community legislation that by themselves demanded the development of a system: framework rules and a series of detailed rules based on them such as the framework directive on the quality of air7, the water policy framework directive8, or waste management that had been the first among the framework directives.9 Framework regulation is a clear indication that it is necessary to set up a system for the already large number of environmental rules.
Internal harmonisation consists at least of two elements: namely harmonisation within environmental law, for instance the establishment of an identical level of requirements, so that the proposition of the preamble of the IPPC Directive10 should not become reality in that the difference of requirements may allow for transferring pollution from one environmental media to another. The other element is harmonisation between environmental law and other areas not characteristically in the field of environmental law a nice example of which is found in the most recent regulation of environmental impact assessment11, seeking a solution for a practical problem emerging in relation to the approvals of specialist authorities, when Para 2 of Article 8 authorises the environmental authority: “If the stands of specialist authorities are not unambiguous or have got into contradiction with each other, the inspectorate will call a conciliatory meeting if necessary.” It was necessary because the current regular rules of the procedures of public administration have not contained stipulations for such cases.
The Sixth Action Programme separately deals with the voluntary means of self-regulation, of which here only a brief thought for laying the foundations is expressed: “legal regulation and the market effects jointly develop such a background regulation based on which users of the environment realise similar requirements of regulation by the organisation of their own activities like the state would in traditional regulation, but the acceptance and observance or these regulations is partly the result of one’s own decision, hence the choice of aims and means is also based on one’s own decision.”12
According to the Programme the full implementation and enforcement of the existing Community law enjoys top priority in the currently valid ten-year cycle. One element is to initiate legal procedure against Member States exploring legal violation by the EC Court of Justice.13 Cases brought to the Court of Justice have a clearly law promoting role, as the transposition of Community law does not merely mean legal norms, but in addition the acquis communautaire contains judicial practice emerging as a result of processes against the violation of law or for the interpretation of law.14
In the following cases will be selected precisely of that judicial practice in order to call attention to the fact that so far that area has not been given adequate emphasis.
The first question is how Community law should be made part of domestic law. In the case of The Commission of the European Community versus Germany15 the respective EU legislation was the Council Directive 80/779 on the limit values and guiding values of the quality of air concerning sulphur dioxide and loose dust. The Member States were obliged to pass legislation meeting the requirements set by the Directive and to implement the Directive within two years of its promulgation, that is prior to 18 July 1982. The Commission was of the view that Germany did not fully comply with the requirements of the Directive, and among others it made legal norms that were not generally binding. Representatives of the German State argued that their Act on protection against pollution passed in 1974 and the measures taken for its implementation met the aims of the Directive. The Court pointed out that practice corresponding to the requirements of the Directive could not serve as a basis for waiving the introduction of adequate legal norms. These legal norms had to be precisely worded, clear and transparent, since they could offer a possibility for the individuals only if they get acquainted with their resulting rights and duties. The legal implementation of the Directive could be assured only by the creation of such a legal environment. The circular on administrative practice, referred to by the German party, as a means of implementation, obliged the authorities to act only in the case of certain specified actions and facilities. Therefore the Court stated that there had been no compulsory legal norm of general validity in the German legal system that would oblige the authorities in every case when there was a possibility for transgressing the limit values.
The backbone of the Court’s argumentation is the finding that the primary justification for the creation of the Directive and its aim was to protect human health. And the individuals can only take action in the defence of their rights if the Member State passed legal norms based on the Directive that would make these rights unambiguous. That right offers the possibility for all not to trespass the limit values. The Court had drawn the conclusion that in each case, when the Directive established rights and duties for individuals, they should be introduced into the national legal system by clearly worded legal norms containing specific stipulations.
The other basic question pertains to the time of the introduction of the legislation. Community legal norms always contain a stipulation saying when a given regulation would enter into force. In the case of Regulations, to be directly implemented, the date of entry into force is usually the day of promulgation in the official journal of the EU. In the case of Directives, which are the most frequent means of legal approximation, it is obligatory for the Member States to report to the EU on the observance of the deadline indicated by the Directive, and on the implementation of measures necessary up to that date as the implementation and enforcement of those regulations will take place following the expiry of the deadline.
In the case discussed here16 a Belgian environmental organisation, the Inter-Environnement Wallonie ASBL turned to the Court of Justice with a complaint against the Walloon Province arguing that the legal solutions related to waste were inadequate. The issue was related to the definition of waste, as it is the case so many times, and challenged the differences in the conditions of licensing. The issue we are concerned with at present, from the aspect of legal approximation is even more interesting than the definition itself, because the licensing rule, not corresponding to Community law, that is waiver from licence, was passed at a time when the given two years to the transposition of Community law were not yet over. Thus the question is whether it is possible to pass a rule contrary to the Community regulation during that period of time. The issue resembles the question of advance reservation. The Court clearly took up the position that during the period available for transposition only such measures could be taken that would promote the smooth implementation of the Directive despite the fact that the deadline was not yet reached.
Certain issues of interpretation create eternal problems, and particularly the proper use of definitions is a recurrent one. In this area several cases could be quoted17, but now that one is to be analysed in which an issue of interpretation with the demand for the permanent clarification of definitions was submitted by the Dutch Council of State, and was related to an administrative procedure launched by the A. M. L. van Rooij against the Dommel Water Authority.18 The essential issue of the procedure was the assessment of pollutants let into an aquatic environment. The key issue was that according to the private individual the authority wrongly interpreted the definition of discharge when it took measures in the interest of protecting surface waters. In this context the definition of pollution was also one of the bases of the dispute. Pollution means the discharge of pollutants or energy, directly or indirectly into the aquatic environment and as a result human health may be endangered, the live components of the environment may be damaged, property value may be damaged, and legal uses of water may be endangered.
According to the private individual the steam released by the impregnation of wood contains hazardous material that would directly get into the surface waters from steam, or indirectly, by precipitating on the soil and plants, thus discharging hazardous material again into the aquatic environment, should, by all means be judged on the basis of rules related to discharging hazardous materials into the aquatic environment, hence it is an activity requiring license. The Court of Justice approved both suppositions of the private individual, noting that the distance between the pollutant source and the surface water might be taken into account, namely to what extent it could be foreseen that pollutants would get into the water.
Definitions are mixed up with the interpretation of positive regulation in the case that was presented by the High Court of Public Administration of Schleswig-Holstein in the Wilhelm Mecklenburg and Pinneberg District v. Der Landrat, where Der Vertreter des Öffentlichen Interesses, Kiel19 was presented as intervening. The issue was linked to Directive 90/313/EEC, regulating the freedom of information on the environment. The plaintiff of the case, Mr Mecklenburg wished to be acquainted with the consent of the regional landscape conservation authority as special authority granted to the licensing process of the building of the so-called “Western passage”. His request was rejected for the stand could not qualify as ‘information on the environment’. The Court of Justice however saw the issue differently, considering the stand of the landscape conservation authority as a special variant of information, and a special measure of public administration the purpose of which was to protect the environment, as their stand was to influence the outcome of the entire process. In relation to the same question even the possibility emerged that the related information could not be disclosed because the stand was part of the so-called ‘preliminary process of investigation’ and as such it was not freely available. The Court however had set the framework of that kind of qualification very narrowly when it exposed that only those processes could qualify as such that immediately preceded the basic procedure and it was needed to serve as collecting certain proofs before the procedure of public administration began.
Of the numerous possible examples related to the transposition of legal norms a case related to environmental impact assessment is discussed as the last one that emerged between the Commission and Ireland.20 The Court of Justice studied the Irish situation in particular great detail, and especially those issues of delimitation within it that would help in deciding when an impact assessment was to be conducted. In certain cases Ireland, such as semi-natural areas serving also agricultural purposes, afforestation, etc. linked delimitation to a measure given in exact figures like the size of the area that neither the Commission nor the Court considered acceptable because it did not reflect the actual sensitivity and importance of the areas. In fact it is the criterion of significant environmental impact that is in the focus of the issue hence it cannot be decided upon by numerical data set in advance because it does not respond to risks and disregards accumulating impacts as well. Thus the points of selection for side issues cannot be squeezed within absolute limits.
All of the above examples offer good lessons and clearly indicate how profoundly the Commission and next the Court of Justice would explore the background meaning of definitions on the one hand, and penetrate into detail on the other. All this is a warning that it is not enough merely to translate and transpose Community positive law but its real meaning should also be studied, and then implemented accordingly.
The Sixth Action Programme also mentions some additional questions in relation to the implementation of law, that are merely listed below this time:
– It is not only legal procedures that represent the only safeguard of law abiding, as transparency, positive examples, giving adequate information, etc. should also be classified under this heading.
– The role of environmental penal law should be strengthened, and in general the issue of liability.
– Experience and the exchange of the practice of the proper implementation of law among Member States may also have good results.
The unambiguous message of the above contents is that there are quite a number of tasks in domestic law too, and not only in the field of legislation. The circumstances, procedures and conditions of the implementation of law should be further developed, the position of the environmental authority should be strengthened, including experts, means, finances, but also the organisational framework of integration should be adequately created, or the handling and protection of the elements of the environment separated.
Notes
1
For instance 21/2001. (II. 14.) Government decree on some rules related to the protection of the air:
Item 29. The order, in harmony with Item 3 of Act I of 1994, promulgating the Europe Agreement on the establishment of association between the Republic of Hungary and the European Communities and its Member States, signed on 16 December 1991 in Brussels, contains regulations that are compatible with the following legal rules of the European Communities:
– Council Directive 96/62/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air quality assessment and management;
– Council Directive 91/692/EEC of 23 December 1991 modifying the Council Directive 84/360/EEC of 28 June 1984 on the combating of air pollution from industrial plants;
– 97/101/EC: Council Decision of 27 January 1997 establishing a reciprocal exchange of information and data from networks and individual stations measuring ambient air pollution within the Member States;
– In its sphere of regulation the order contains compatible regulation with the Council Directive 96/6/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control.
2
Handbook on the implementation of EC Environmental Legislation, 2000. Published by the Commission of the EC, 2. Chapter on the ‘Implementation and the accession process’. p. 8.
3
Ludwig Krämer: Az Európai Bizottság szerepe a közösségi környezetvédelmi jog átvételének ellenőrzésében. Európai Jog, No. 3, 2002, p. 3.
4
The Action Programme has been adopted by the Decision No 1600/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on 22 July 2002, laying down the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme.
5
See more in detail in: Fodor, László: Kezünkben a jövőnk – az Európai Közösség 6. környezetvédelmi akcióprogramja /Our future is in our hands – the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme/. Európai Jog, No. 4, 2001.
6
“Based on the principle, the means of liability must be implemented in the possibly most complex way so that the acceptance of liability by those burdening and polluting nature should be as full as possible. Liability does not only manifest itself in the literal, material sense of payment but in activities or even in personal liability. Thus the principle of the polluter pays is interpreted as the synonym of the principle of liability because both serve an identical aim in the spirit of complexity mentioned above.” Bándi, Gyula: Környezetjog /Environmental Law/ OSIRIS Publishing House, 2002.
7
Council directive 96/62/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air quality assessment and management.
8
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy.
9
Council Directive 75/442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on waste.
10
Council Directive 96/61.
11
Governmental regulation No. 20/2001. (II. 14.)
12
Bándi, Gyula: Környezetjog /Environmental Law/ OSIRIS Publishing House, 2002.
13
On this question and the related procedure see in detail the paper mentioned under footnote 3.
14
The “environmental acquis” is based on three main pillars: ... The third pillar deals with the rulings and judicial practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union, this is the so-called judicial acquis. Dr Remo Savoia Ubrizsy: A környezetvédelmi acquis – az Accession acquis-n belül. Európai jog, 10May 2002. p. 10.
15
Case No. C-361/88, a ruling was made on 30 May 1991.
16
Case No. 129/96. (18 December 1997.)
17
One of the most recent cases was processed by the author under the title “A hulladék fogalma egy aktuális jogesetben” /The Concept of Waste in a Current Case/, in the May 2002 issue of Európai jog.
18
Legal case 231/97 (29 September 1999.)
19
Case No. C-321/96.
20
Case No. C-392/96.
Begegnungen13_Zarodokumentum
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 13:103–116.
NIZZA
2000. december 7–9.
Elnökségi záródokumentum
1. Az Európai Tanács Nizzában tanácskozott 2000. december 7. és 9. között. A tanácskozás kezdetén az Európai Parlament elnökasszonya, Nicole Fontaine és az Európai Tanács eszmét cserélt a szóban forgó főbb kérdésekről.
I. AZ ALAPVETŐ JOGOK CHARTÁJA
2. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az Európai Unió Tanácsa, az Európai Parlament és az Európai Bizottság együttes nyilatkozatát az Alapvető jogok chartájáról, ami egyetlen dokumentumban egyesíti a polgári, politikai, gazdasági, szociális és társadalmi jogokat. Ezeket eddig különböző nemzetközi, európai vagy nemzeti jogforrásokban rögzítették. Az Európai Tanács szívesen látná, ha a charta a lehető legszélesebb körben elterjedne az Európai Unió polgárai között. A kölni záródokumentum szellemében a charta hatálybalépésének kérdését később tárgyalják.
Az intézmények működése
3. Az Európai Tanács rámutat az általa Helsinkiben jóváhagyott, az Európai Unió Tanácsa munkájára vonatkozó működési javaslatok megvalósításának fontosságára és tudomásul veszi az új, együttes döntéshozó eljárásról szóló jelentést. Megismétli elkötelezettségét az Európai Bizottság adminisztratív reformjának támogatása mellett. Megelégedéssel veszi tudomásul az Európai Unió Tanácsa és az Európai Bizottság által elfogadott intézkedéseket, amelyekkel javítják az unió külpolitikai lépéseinek hatékonyságát.
II. BŐVÍTÉS
4. Az Európai Tanács megerősíti az Európai Unió bővítési folyamatának történelmi jelentőségét és a folyamat sikeréhez kapcsolódó politikai prioritást. Üdvözli a tagjelölt országokkal folytatott belépési tárgyalások felgyorsulását, ezek során igen komoly előrehaladást értek el, különösen az utóbbi hónapokban.
5. Az Európai Tanács úgy véli, hogy elérkezett az idő, hogy a folyamat új lendületet kapjon. Jóváhagyja az Európai Bizottság által javasolt stratégiával kapcsolatban az Általános Ügyek Tanácsának 2000. december 4-i záródokumentumát. Örömmel látja, hogy a záródokumentum megerősíti a tagjelölt országokkal szemben alkalmazott – saját érdemeiken nyugvó – különbségtevés alapelveit és a felzárkózás hatókörének engedélyezését. A következő 18 hónapra vonatkozó ütemterv megkönnyíti a további tárgyalások menetét, szem előtt tartván, hogy a legjobban felkészült államok továbbra is képesek lesznek gyorsabb ütemű haladásra.
6. Az Európai Tanács szándéka szerint ez a stratégia, az intézményi reformról szóló kormányközi konferencia lezárásával együtt, az uniót olyan helyzetbe juttatja – az Európai Tanács helsinki ülésén kitűzött célok szellemében –, hogy az új tagállamokat 2002 végétől fogadhatja, abban a reményben, hogy azok már részt tudnak venni a következő európai parlamenti választáson. 2001 júniusában Göteborgban az Európai Tanács értékelni fogja az új stratégia megvalósítása során elért haladást, annak érdekében, hogy megadja a szükséges útmutatást a folyamat sikeres befejezéséhez.
7. Az Európai Tanács értékeli azt erőfeszítést, amit a tagjelölt országok tettek az acquis* elfogadásához, megvalósításához és gyakorlati alkalmazásához szükséges körülmények megteremtése terén. A tagjelölt országokat felkérik ennek folytatására, valamint a felvételük előkészítéséhez szükséges reformok felgyorsítására, különösen az adminisztratív kapacitás megerősítésére, hogy ennélfogva a lehető leghamarabb csatlakozhassanak az unióhoz. Az Európai Tanács felkéri az Európai Bizottságot, hogy tegyen javaslatot a határ menti régiók programjára, azok gazdasági versenyképességének erősítése érdekében.
8. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a tagjelölt országok valutaárfolyam-stratégiájáról készített EU-tanácsi beszámolót, amely megállapítja az unióba történő felvétellel összeegyeztethető valutaárfolyam-stratégiákat, amit követ a valutaárfolyam működési elvébe történő bekapcsolódás és végül az euró bevezetése. Üdvözli a tagjelölt országokkal folytatott gazdasági és pénzügyi párbeszéd megteremtését.
9. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli a Törökországgal kapcsolatos előfelvételi stratégia megvalósítása során elért haladást és nagy örömmel veszi tudomásul az Európai Unió Tanácsa 2000. december 4-i ülésén elért megegyezést a keretszabályozás és a felvételi partnerség kérdésében. Ennek a dokumentumnak a jelentőségét kiemeli az unió és Törökország közötti kapcsolatok szorosabbra fonódása, a helsinki Európai Tanácson felvázoltak szerint. Törökországot arra kéri, hogy gyorsan terjessze elő – a felvételi partnerség alapján – az acquis elfogadására vonatkozó nemzeti programot.
10. A 2000. december 7-i állam- és kormányfői szintű kormányközi konferencia (európai konferencia) lehetőséget nyújtott a intézményi reform és az Európai Unió működése részletes megbeszélésére, szem előtt tartva a hosszú távú szempontokat. Az Európai Tanács az európai konferenciát hasznos keretnek tekinti az unió tagállamai és a tagságra pályázó országok közti párbeszéd céljából. Javasolja a stabilizációs és a segítségnyújtási folyamatokban érintett országok, illetve az EFTA-államok, mint jövőbeli tagok, meghívását.
III. A KÖZÖS EURÓPAI BIZTONSÁG- ÉS VÉDELEMPOLITIKA
11. Az Európai Tanács jóváhagyja az európai biztonság- és védelempolitikáról szóló elnökségi beszámolót, illetve annak függelékeit.
12. Az Európai Tanács felkéri a következő elnökséget, hogy a főtitkár/főmegbízottal együtt, végezzen előremutató tevékenységet az Általános Ügyek Tanácsában, az elnökségi beszámolóban megjelölt feladatok szellemében. A cél az, hogy az Európai Unió gyorsan működőképessé váljon ezen a területen. A 2001-ben, legkésőbb a laekeni tanácskozáson evégett döntést fog hozni az Európai Tanács – amilyen gyorsan csak lehet. A következő svéd elnökséget felkérik, hogy az összes ezzel kapcsolatos ügyről készítsen beszámolót az Európai Tanács göteborgi ülésére.
IV. ÚJ LENDÜLET EURÓPÁBAN GAZDASÁGI ÉS SZOCIÁLIS TÉREN
Szociális Európa
Európai Szociális Agenda
13. Az Európai Tanács jóváhagyja az Európai Szociális Agendát (lásd a Függeléket), amely meghatározza – az Európai Tanács lisszaboni ülésének záródokumentuma szellemében és az Európai Bizottság közleménye alapján –, a következő öt évre vonatkozó különleges cselekvési prioritásokat a szociálpolitika területén és a hat stratégiai irányvonal mentén. Ez az Agenda komoly előrelépést jelent az európai szociális modell megerősítése és korszerűsítése felé, amit a gazdaság teljesítőképessége és a társadalmi előrehaladás közti eltéphetetlen kapocs fémjelez.
14. Az Európai Bizottság és az Európai Unió Tanácsa beszámolóira, valamint a rendszeresen frissített eredményértékelő táblázatra építve az Európai Tanács minden tavasszal tanácskozni fog az Agenda megvalósításának kérdéséről, kezdve a 2001. márciusi stockholmi tanácskozáson. Az Európai Tanács felhívja szociális partnereit, hogy játszanak erőteljes szerepet ennek megvalósításában és ellenőrzésében, különös tekintettel az Európai Tanács tavaszi ülését megelőzően tartandó éves tanácskozásokra.
Európai foglalkoztatási stratégia
15. Az eltelt tíz évben az Európai Unióban a gazdasági növekedés jelenleg a legkedvezőbb: 2000-ben a 3,5%-ot is elérheti. A munkanélküliség az 1997-et követő három egymás utáni évben fokozatosan csökkent; 2000 közepén a munkanélküliségi arány 8,7% volt, a 2001-re pedig kevesebb, mint 8%-ot jeleznek előre. Ugyanezen időszak alatt a foglalkoztatási arány 60,7%-ról 62,1%-ra nőtt.
16. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a 2001-re vonatkozó foglalkoztatási irányvonalakkal kapcsolatos európai bizottsági javaslatot, amely megerősíti az Európai Tanács luxembourgi ülésén kezdeményezett, a foglalkoztatáshoz kötődő középtávú állásfoglalást. Az irányvonalak előrehaladást jelentenek, különösen a mennyiségi célkitűzések terén, de helyet kapnak benne a különböző országok sajátos minőségi elemei is. Az adott országoknak számításba kell venniük a foglalkoztatás színvonalát, a vállalkozások fokozott fejlődését és az élethosszig tartó tanulás keresztirányú célját.
17. A fenti iránymutatásokkal az Európai Tanács jóváhagyja a tagállamoknak címzett egyedi ajánlásokkal és a közös beszámolóval kapcsolatos, az Európai Unió Tanácsában megszületett megegyezést. Üdvözli az Európai Parlament és a szociális partnerek konstruktív részvételét, illetve az integrált állásfoglalást, beleértve annak gazdasági és oktatási elemeit is, amelynek keretében ezt a témát kidolgozták.
Európai stratégia a társadalmi kirekesztettség és a diszkrimináció minden formája ellen
18. Az Európai Tanács helyesli a szegénység és a társadalmi kirekesztettség elleni küzdelem célkitűzéseit, amelyet az Európai Unió Tanácsa már korábban elfogadott. Felhívja a tagállamokat, hogy ezen célok élvezzenek elsőbbséget és 2001 júniusáig terjesszenek elő két évre szóló nemzeti akciótervet, illetve határozzák meg az előrehaladás mérésére szolgáló mutatókat és ellenőrző mechanizmusokat.
19. Az Európai Tanács hangsúlyozza az Európai Uniós Szerződés 13. cikkelye szellemével megegyező, a diszkrimináció minden formája elleni küzdelemről szóló frissen elfogadott szöveg fontosságát.
A társadalom védelmének korszerűsítése
20. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a szociális védelemmel foglalkozó magas szintű munkacsoport által készített, a szociális védelem jövőjéről szóló – különös tekintettel a nyugdíjakra –, illetve a Gazdaságpolitikai Bizottságnak a népesség elöregedésének következményeit tárgyaló beszámolóit.
21. Az Európai Tanács helyesli az Európai Unió Tanácsa állásfoglalását, amely átfogóan értékeli a nyugállományba vonuláshoz kapcsolódó rendszerek fenntarthatóságát és minőségét. Az Európai Tanács felhívja a tagállamokat, hogy együttműködve az Európai Bizottsággal cseréljék ki tapasztalataikat és számoljanak be az ezen a területen alkalmazott nemzeti stratégiájukról. Javallott, hogy a nyugdíjrendszer tartós kialakításáról szóló előzetes átfogó tanulmány eredményei rendelkezésre álljanak az Európai Tanács stockholmi ülésének idejére.
A dolgozók bevonása
22. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az európai vállalatok szociálpolitikai kérdéseiről alkotott egyezményt. Ez a megegyezés, amely számításba veszi a tagállamokban fennálló foglalkoztatási viszonyok különböző típusait, meghagyja a tagállamoknak a választást, hogy át akarják-e ültetni nemzeti törvénykezésükbe a fúzióval egybeolvadó európai vállalatokra vonatkozó, a részvétellel kapcsolatos referencia-feltételeket. Amennyiben egy európai vállalat olyan tagállamban akarja bejegyeztetni magát, amely nem vette át a referencia-feltételeket, egyezményt kell kötnie a dolgozók bevonásáról, beleértve azok részvételét is, mert máskülönben az érintett vállalatot sem kötik az európai vállalatok bejegyzéséhez szükséges részvételi szabályok. Erre az alapra építve az Európai Tanács felkéri az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy még 2000 vége előtt készítse el az európai vállalatokra vonatkozó rendelet megalkotásához szükséges szöveget.
23. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a munkavállalók informálásáról és a velük történő konzultálásról szóló utasítás vázlatával kapcsolatos tárgyalásokon elért jelentős előrehaladást, és felkéri az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy folytassa az utasítással kapcsolatos vizsgálatait.
Az innovációra és a tudásra épülő Európa
A hallgatók és az oktatók mobilitása
24. Az Európai Tanács helyesli az Európai Unió Tanácsa által elfogadott, mobilitással kapcsolatos akciótervről szóló határozatot (lásd a Függeléket). Felkéri a tagállamokat, hogy növeljék a belső koordinációt az adminisztratív, a törvényhozói, a pénzügyi és a szociális elemekhez kötődő 42 gyakorlati intézkedés megvalósítása érdekében, amelyeket az Európán belüli mobilitás meghatározása, fokozása és demokratizálása céljából alkottak meg, valamint arra, hogy segítsék a finanszírozás megfelelő típusait. A haladásról kétévente értékelés készül.
e-Európa 2002 terv
25. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az e-Európa 2002 terv megvalósításáról szóló európai bizottsági és EU-tanácsi beszámolókat, amelyek leírják az elért haladást. Az Európai Unió Tanácsának stockholmi tanácskozásán beszámolót hallgatnak meg arról, hogy ez a terv mennyiben járult hozzá a tudásalapú gazdaság kifejlesztéséhez, valamint további megvalósításának elsődleges céljaihoz. Ugyanebben az összefüggésben megvizsgálják – a Strasbourgban tartandó, a civil szolgáltatásokkal foglalkozó miniszteri tanácskozás fényében –, hogy a terv mennyiben járult hozzá a tagállamokon belüli civil szolgáltatások korszerűsítéséhez.
Kutatás és innováció
26. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az „Európai kutatási és innovációs térség” létrehozásában elért haladást. Szeretné, ha folytatódnának a kutatási eredmények átláthatóságának és a tudományos pálya csábításának fokozására tett kezdeményezések. Tudomásul veszi a kis- és középvállalkozásokra vonatkozó, az Európai Közösség pénzügyi intézményeiről szóló EU-tanácsi záródokumentumot és az EIB „Innováció 2000” kezdeményezésének első eredményeit.
27. Az Európai Tanács felkéri az Európai Bizottságot, hogy Stockholmban terjessze az Európai Tanács elé az európai kutatási és innovációs térség megalkotása során elért haladásról szóló beszámolóját.
28. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottságnak a GALILEO-tervezetről szóló beszámolóját. A jóváhagyási fázis alatt a finanszírozás az Európai Közösség és az Európai Űrügynökség meghatározott célú ráfordításaiból történik majd. A tervezet megvalósításához és az ezt követő lebonyolításához állami–magán partnerség létrehozására lesz szükség. Az Európai Tanács megerősíti a magánfinanszírozás szerepéről szóló kölni tanácskozásának záródokumentumát. Az Európai Tanács sürgeti az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy 2000. december 20-i tanácskozásán határozza meg a GALILEO-tervezet intézkedéseit – többek között –, biztosítva a szilárd pénzügyi fedezetet és az összes tagállam kiegyensúlyozott részvételét.
A gazdaságpolitika koordinálása
Strukturális mutatók
29. Az Európai Tanács megelégedéssel veszi tudomásul a különböző tagállamok kompatibilis strukturális mutatóinak listáját, amelyet az Európai Bizottság és az Európai Unió Tanácsa intézkedései alapján készítettek el. Ezek a mutatók, amelyek egyben az elért haladást is jelzik, felhasználhatók lesznek az összefoglaló beszámolóban is. Az Európai Unió Tanácsa néhány mutatót ki fog választani az Európai Tanács stockholmi ülése előtt.
A pénzpiacok szabályozása
30. Az Európai Tanács egyetértését fejezi ki a Lámfalussy Sándor elnök úr vezette Bölcsek Bizottságának az európai biztosítási piacokról szóló menet közbeni beszámolójában található kezdeti kutatási eredmények, valamint a pénzügyi szolgáltatások akciótervéről szóló harmadik bizottsági beszámoló kapcsán. Felhívja az Európai Unió Tanácsát és az Európai Bizottságot, hogy ebben a témában készítsenek beszámolót a 2001. márciusi stockholmi ülésre, a Bölcsek Bizottságának végső beszámolója alapján.
Euró
31. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az eurócsoport munkája és ennek átláthatósága során elért javulást. Egyben üdvözli azt a szándékot, amely főként a szerkezeti kérdések kiterjesztésére irányul a fórumokon, tekintettel az Európai Tanács luxembourgi ülésének záródokumentumára. Ezek a fejlesztések, amelyek a gazdaságpolitikai koordináció fokozását célozzák, segíteni fogják az eurótérség növekedési lehetőségeit.
32. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az euró pénzérméinek és bankjegyeinek bevezetése terén elért előrehaladást. Az Európai Bizottság eredményértékelő táblázata, amelyet rendszeresen kiadnak az eurócsoporton belül, lehetővé teszi a különböző államokban elért fejlődés feltérképezését. Az Európai Tanács örömmel fogadná az előkészítő munkálatok felgyorsítását és javaslatot tesz bizonyos időpontokra a témához kapcsolódó információk strukturálása érdekében, az eurótérségben a 2001. év folyamán: a május 9-i hét legyen az Európa-napok része; az európénzérmék és -bankjegyek bemutatására szeptemberben kerüljön sor; az európénzérmék váljanak elérhetővé december közepére azok számára, akik ezt igénylik a tagállamokban; valamint az európénzérmék és -bankjegyek bevezetése december 31-én éjfélkor történjen meg. Az euró hamisítással szembeni megvédésének hatékony rendszerét a lehető leghamarabb el kell fogadni a 2001. év folyamán.
Adócsomag
33. Az Európai Tanács örömmel veszi tudomásul az „adócsomag” terén elért egyezményt, amely összhangban áll az Európai Tanács feirai ülésén megalkotott időrenddel és feltételekkel, különösen a megtakarítások megadóztatásáról szóló utasítás tartamának lényegét illetően. Kéri az Európai Bizottságot és az Elnökséget, hogy a lehető leggyorsabban kezdeményezzen megbeszélést az Egyesült Államokkal és további, harmadik félnek számító államokkal a megtakarítások megadóztatására vonatkozó hasonló intézkedések elfogadásáról. Az érintett tagállamok megkezdték a szükséges előkészületeket azon intézkedések elfogadására, amelyek alkalmazhatók az Európai Unióban a feirai záródokumentumban feltüntetett, összes érintett vagy társult területen. A Magatartási Kódexről (vállalkozások adózása) folytatott megbeszéléseket ezzel párhuzamosan folytatni kell, hogy ezáltal a megtakarítások megadóztatásáról szóló kódex és utasítás együttesen legyen elfogadható. Az Elnökség és az Európai Bizottság jelentésben számol be az Európai Tanács göteborgi ülésén az adócsomag elemeiről.
Az Európai Tanács tavaszi ülésének előkészítése
34. 2001. március 23–24-én Stockholmban tartja majd első, rendszeres tavaszi ülését az Európai Tanács, amely az Európai Bizottság összefoglaló beszámolóján és az Európai Unió Tanácsa idevágó jelentésein alapulva, főként gazdasági és társadalmi kérdésekkel foglalkozik majd, többek között azon demográfiai kihívások tükrében, amellyel az uniónak szembe kell néznie. Ez a tanácskozás lehetőséget nyújt majd a Lisszabonban elfogadott általános stratégia megvalósításának felmérésére. Ez az első tanácskozás különösen nagy jelentőségű a folyamat jövőbeli alakulásának szempontjából és az Európai Tanács minden felet sürget, hogy folytassák az aktív előkészületeket, figyelembe véve a jelenlegi Elnökség által kezdeményezett előzetes munkálatokat.
V. A POLGÁROK EURÓPÁJA
A fogyasztók egészsége és biztonsága
35. Az Európai Tanács megerősíti, hogy gyorsan és teljes mértékben meg kell valósítani az Amszterdami Szerződésben bevezetett alapelveket, amelyek az emberi egészség magas szintű védelmét biztosítják – az Európai Közösség politikája és lépései meghatározásának, illetve ezek megvalósításának keretén belül. Ezzel összefüggésben az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az elővigyázatossági alapelvekről szóló EU-tanácsi határozatot (vö. Függelék).
36. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottság javaslatát a szabályozásról, amely egyrészről lefektetné az élelmiszertörvény általános alapelveit és alapvető követelményeit, másrészről pedig létrehozná az Európai Élelmiszer-felügyeletet. Az élelmiszer védelmének politikáját alkalmazni kell a teljes táplálékláncra, emberekre és állatokra egyaránt. Az új Európai Élelmiszer-felügyeletnek a tudományosság, a függetlenség és az átláthatóság legmagasabb szintjén kell működnie, hogy ezáltal segítséget nyújtson a válságok megelőzéséhez. Az Európai Tanács felhívja az Európai Unió Tanácsát és az Európai Parlamentet, hogy gyorsítsák fel munkájukat, és ezáltal a 2002. év kezdetétől működőképessé váljon az Európai Élelmiszer-felügyelet.
BSE
37. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Unió Tanácsa által jóváhagyott intézkedéseket a BSE elleni harcban: a tesztprogramok megvalósítását, a hús- és a csontőrlemények felhasználásának felfüggesztésre az állatállomány etetése során, valamint a megjelölt veszélyes anyagok visszavonását. Ezek listáját, amennyiben szükséges, ki lehet bővíteni. A rendelkezéseket gyorsan és határozottan kell megvalósítani, annak érdekében, hogy a fogyasztók tartós garanciát kapjanak arról, hogy a marhahús biztonságos. Az emberi és az állati orvoslás kutatása terén még fokozottabb erőfeszítésekre van szükség, ha azt akarjuk, hogy ennek a betegségnek a megelőzése, felismerése és kezelése garantált legyen.
38. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottságnak azt a szándékát, hogy az javaslatot tegyen a marhapiacon kialakult helyzet javítására, továbbá tanulmányozza az állattenyésztők helyzetét és alapos elemzés tárgyává tegye az olajos és proteinben gazdag növények ellátottságát és az azok iránti szükségletet, szigorúan szem előtt tartva a végső célkitűzést.
Tengeri biztonság
39. Az Európai Tanács felkéri az Európai Parlamentet és az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy a lehető leghamarabb fejezze be a kikötők állami ellenőrzéséről és a vállalatok besorolásáról szóló intézkedések elfogadását, főként a legnagyobb kockázatot jelentő járművek és az egytörzsű olajszállító tankhajók felgyorsított, lépcsőzetes kivonásáról szóló intézkedések vizsgálatának fokozását, megegyezésre törekedvén a Nemzetközi Tengerészeti Szervezet keretén belül.
40. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottság új javaslatait, amelyek a tengeri biztonság javítását célozzák; ezek a javaslatok a tengeri közlekedéssel kapcsolatos információkról szóló jelentések és az ezek eljuttatását érintő európai rendszer javítására, az Európai Tengerészeti Biztonsági Ügynökség létrehozására, valamint a kötelezettség és kártérítés fennálló nemzetközi rendszere hiányosságainak javítására irányulnak.
41. Mindezek a javaslatok lényegesen hozzájárulnak az Európai Tanács által igényelt EU-s tengeri biztonsági stratégiához. Az Európai Tanács felhívja a tagállamokat, hogy előzetesen foganatosítsák a tizenöt tagállam által elfogadott intézkedéseket, ott, ahol ez nem érinti a nemzetközi kereteket.
Környezetvédelem
Az éghajlat változása
42. Az Európai Tanács sajnálattal veszi tudomásul azt a tényt, hogy nem sikerült megegyezést elérni a hágai konferencián. Nyomatékosan hangsúlyozza, hogy a Jegyzőkönyv B függelékében érintett összes fél késlekedés nélkül kezdeményezze a kötelezettségvállalásaikhoz szükséges intézkedések végrehajtását és megerősíti az unió azon ígéretét, hogy elszántan munkálkodni fog a kiotói jegyzőkönyv ratifikálásán, hogy az legkésőbb 2002-ben hatályba léphessen. Előrehaladást sikerült elérni a tárgyalások során az összes témában, főként a fejlődő országok kérdésében, és ezt a haladást fel kell használni az összes érintett felet – köztük a fejlődő országokat – tömörítő jövőbeli tárgyalások során. Az Európai Tanács támogatja a még az év letelte előtt Oslóban tartandó, nem hivatalos megbeszélésre vonatkozó javaslatot. Az érintett felek hatodik konferenciájának késlekedés nélkül folytatnia kell munkáját. Az Európai Tanács kéri az összes felet, hogy minden lehetséges erőfeszítést tegyen meg a lehető leggyorsabb megegyezés elérése érdekében.
Környezetvédelem és a fenntartható fejlődés
43. Az Európai Tanács érdeklődve veszi tudomásul a környezetvédelmi kérdések gazdaságpolitikába történő beillesztéséről szóló EU-tanácsi beszámolót. Tudomásul veszi az ösztönző jellegű eszközök előtérbe helyezésére vonatkozó ajánlásokat, különösen az adózás területén. Ezek a beszámolók jelentős mértékben hozzájárulnak az európai fenntartható fejlődés stratégiájának előkészítéséhez, amelyet az Európai Tanács Göteborgban tesz vizsgálata tárgyává.
44. Az Európai Tanács érdeklődve veszi tudomásul a nemzetközi környezetvédelmi szabályozás kérdésében, valamint a jelenlegi hiányosságok orvoslására szolgáló, mind a rövid, mind a hosszú távú lehetséges megoldások terén elért eredményeket, beleértve a világméretű környezetvédelmi szervezet létrehozásának lehetőségét is. Az Európai Tanács felhívja a Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy folytassa megbe- széléseit ebben a tárgyban és terjesszen elő részletes javaslatokat a 2001. júniusi göteborgi tanácskozáson, beleértve a Rio+10-re vonatkozó előkészítő javaslatokat is.
Közérdekű szolgáltatások
45. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a közérdekű szolgáltatásokról szóló brüsszeli bizottsági közleményt és helyesli az Európai Unió Tanácsa által elfogadott nyilatkozatot (vö. Függelék). Felhívja az Európai Unió Tanácsát és az Európai Bizottságot, hogy folytassák ezen irányvonalak és az Európai Unió Szerződése 16. cikkelye rendelkezésének alapján történő megbeszéléseiket. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottság azon szándékát, hogy az szorosan együttműködve a tagállamokkal, megfontolás tárgyává tegye a nagyobb kiszámíthatóság és fokozott jogi biztonság garantálásának módszereit a közérdekű szolgáltatásokra vonatkozó versenyszabályok terén. Az Európai Unió Tanácsa és az Európai Bizottság ezen irányvonalak megvalósításáról 2001 decemberében beszámolót készít az Európai Tanács részére.
Az unió ellátottságának biztosítása bizonyos termékek terén
46. Az Európai Tanács arra kéri az Európai Bizottságot, hogy az Európai Tanács főtitkárával közösen, készítsen részletes tanulmányt az unió ellátottságának biztosításáról és határozza meg ezen a téren az együttműködés fejlesztéséhez szükséges lehetőségeket.
A szabadság, a biztonság és az igazságszolgáltatás kérdései
Küzdelem a pénzmosás ellen
47. Az Európai Uniónak teljes részt kellene vállalnia a pénzmosás elleni nemzetközi küzdelemben. Sikerült megegyezni olyan jelentős szabályozások megfogalmazásában, mint a pénzmosásról szóló utasítás és keretszerződés. Az Európai Tanács felkéri az Európai Bizottságot és az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy amint lehetséges, foganatosítsa a 2000. december 17-i pénz-, igazság- és belügyminiszteri tanácskozáson megalkotott irányelveket, főként azokat, amelyek a GAFI által 2000 júniusában meghatározott, együttműködést elutasító területekkel szembeni ellenintézkedések elfogadását célozzák.
Bírósági és politikai együttműködés
48. Felkérjük az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy hozzon azonnali intézkedéseket a bírósági döntések kölcsönös elfogadását pártoló programok terén, az unión belüli bírósági döntésekről szóló értesítések megkönnyítése érdekében.
49. Az Európai Tanács emlékeztet a tagállamok illetékes hatóságai közötti működési együttműködés előmozdításának szükségességére az unió külső határainak, különösen a tengeri határoknak az ellenőrzése kapcsán, elsősorban az illegális bevándorlás szankcionálása érdekében. Érdeklődéssel figyeli a spanyol és az olasz miniszterelnöktől ebben az ügyben érkező leveleket. Felkéri az EU-tanácsot, hogy fogadja el az erre a kérdésre irányuló kezdeményezéseket, ahol szükséges, bevonván a tagjelölt országokat.
Menedékjog és bevándorlás
50. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a Tamperében felvetett politika minden területén elért haladást: az eredeti államokkal kötött partnerséget, a harmadik félnek számító országok állampolgárainak bevonását és a vándorlási hullám ellenőrzését. Azt kéri, hogy az emberkereskedelem és az illegális bevándorlás elleni küzdelemről szóló dokumentumhoz kapcsolódó, még megmaradt problémákat a lehető leghamarabb rendezzék, a Feirában egyértelműen kifejezésre jutott kérés szellemében. Az Európai Tanács egyben azt is tudomásul veszi, hogy az Európai Bizottság két közleményt terjesztett elő a bevándorlási politikáról és a közös menedékjogi eljárásról és felkéri az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy a lehető leghamarabb kezdeményezzen megbeszélést ezekben a kérdésekben.
A kultúra Európája
Kulturális és audiovizuális kérdések
51. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az audiovizuális ipart érintő MEDIA Plus segélyprogrammal kapcsolatban megszületett EU-tanácsi egyezményt és az érintett szektorra vonatkozó nemzeti segélyrendszerről szóló határozat elfogadását.
Sport
52. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi a sport sajátos jellemzőiről szóló nyilatkozat EU-tanácsi elfogadását (lásd a Függelékben). Az Európai Tanács emellett üdvözli a Doppingellenes Világügynökséggel kapcsolatos EU-tanácsi záródokumentumot és egyetért az európai együttműködés fokozását illetően. Ezenkívül felhívja a figyelmet az ENSZ Millenniumi Nyilatkozatára, amely a sportról mint eszközről és az olimpiai fegyvernyugvás révén elérhető béke és kölcsönös megértés előmozdításáról szól.
A legkülső régiók
53. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul vette az Európai Bizottság legkülső régiókkal kapcsolatos, az Európai Unió Szerződésében foglalt rendelkezések teljes megvalósítását célzó, frissített munkaprogramját és ezeknek a területeknek a megsegítésére beterjesztett javaslatait. Felkéri az Európai Unió Tanácsát, hogy amint lehetséges, vizsgálja meg ezeket a javaslatokat. Az Európai Tanács az ügyben elért haladás értékelését a 2001. júniusi göteborgi tanácskozásán ejti meg.
54. Az Európai Tanács tudomásul veszi az Európai Bizottságnak a POSEIMA és az Azori-, illetve Madeira-szigetcsoportok gazdasága fejlesztésével kapcsolatban bejelentett intézkedésekről szóló beszámolóját. Tekintettel arra a gazdasági és társadalmi jelentőségre, amelyet ebben a két legkülső régióban a tejszektor betölt, az Európai Bizottság azt javasolta, hogy bizonyos feltételek között emeljék ki az Azori-szigetek tejtermékfogyasztását a járulékos adószolgáltatás nemzetenkénti kiszámításából négyévnyi időtartamra, 1999/2000-től kezdődően.
Szigetrégiók
55. Az Amszterdami Szerződéshez csatolt 30. számú nyilatkozat alapján az Európai Tanács megerősíti, hogy szükség van különleges intézkedésekre a szigetrégiók érdekében, a TEC 158. cikkelyének szellemében, a gazdasági és társadalmi fejlődésüket akadályozó strukturális hátrányok miatt, a rendelkezésre álló költségvetési korlátokon belül.
VI. KÜLKAPCSOLATOK
Ciprus
56. Az Európai Tanács üdvözölte és erőteljesen támogatja az Egyesült Nemzetek Biztonsági Tanácsának határozatával összhangban az Egyesült Nemzetek főtitkárának a ciprusi kérdés általános rendezése, valamint az 1999 decemberében megkezdett folyamat pozitív befejezése érdekében tett erőfeszítéseit. Felkéri az összes érintett felet, járuljanak hozzá ezen erőfeszítések megvalósításához.
A Földközi-tenger térsége
57. A negyedik, Marseille-ben tartott Euro-Mediterráneum miniszteriális konferencia megerősítette a négy évvel ezelőtt Barcelonában elindított folyamat érvényességét és fontos irányelveket fogadott el a partnerség felélénkítésére.
58. Az Európai Tanács megerősíti az Európai Unió azon elkötelezettségét, hogy minden területen elmélyíti ezt a partnerséget. A MEDA-programok keretében, amelyeket az első években szerzett tapasztalatok fényében megreformáltak, 5,35 milliárd eurót osztanak szét a 2000–2006 közötti időszakban, ami tükrözi a partnerséghez kötődő uniós szándékok komolyságát. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az EIB bejelentését, miszerint további 1 milliárd euróval támogatja ezen térség országait.
59. Az Európai Tanács figyelemmel kíséri a Marokkói Királysággal folytatott jövőbeli halászati egyezménnyel kapcsolatos tárgyalásokat és reméli, hogy még az év vége előtt sikerül megoldást elérni. Amennyiben ez nem lehetséges, úgy az Európai Tanács arra kéri az Európai Bizottságot, hogy a pénzügyi lehetőségek határain belül maradva, tegyen javaslatot – a régi egyezmény keretében – a halászatot folytató közösségi flotta átszervezésének különleges akcióprogramjára, és terjessze ki a jelenlegi segélyrendszert a flotta tétlensége idejére is.
A Balkán nyugati része
60. A 2000. november 24-i zágrábi csúcs, amely első alkalommal hozta össze a régió demokráciához visszatért államait, üdvözölte a Balkán nyugati részén végbement történelmi változásokat, amely Horvátországban kezdődött, majd a JSZK-ban folytatódott. Az Európai Unió a legnagyobb fontosságot tulajdonítja a délkelet-európai helyzet javulásának; továbbra is aktívan támogatni fogja a demokrácia, a jogrend, a fennálló határok tiszteletben tartásán és egyéb nemzetközi kötelezettségvállalásokon alapuló megbékélés és együttműködés elérésére tett erőfeszítéseket a Balkán nyugati részén, ami hozzájárul ahhoz, hogy ezek az államok közeledjenek az unióhoz és egységes egészet alkossanak. Az Európai Unió nyomatékosítja a stabilitási szerződés fontosságát és rámutat azon kezdeményezések jelentőségére is, amelyek a térség államai együttműködésének előmozdítását célozzák. Megerősíti, hogy a stabilizációs és segítségnyújtási folyamat az unió politikájának magját alkotja – mind az öt érintett ország kapcsán, amelyek mindegyike egyedi elbírálás alá esik. A felvétel lehetősége – amely eltéphetetlenül kötődik a regionális együttműködésben elért előrehaladáshoz – egyértelműen nyitva áll előttük, a kölni és feirai záródokumentumok szellemével összhangban. Ezek között az országok között a CARD-programok keretében 4,65 milliárd dollárt osztanak szét 2000 és 2006 között. Az Európai Tanács továbbra is támogatja az Európai Közösség és a Duna Bizottság erőfeszítéseit a Duna hajózhatóvá tételére. Ez lényegi eleme a régió gazdasági újjáéledésének és a regionális együttműködés javításának.
Fejlesztés
61. Az Európai Tanács üdvözli az Európai Unió Tanácsának és az Európai Bizottságnak az Európai Közösség fejlesztési politikájáról szóló nyilatkozatának elfogadását. Az Európai Tanács egyben üdvözli a fertőző betegségekről és a szegénységről szóló határozat elfogadását is. A határozat általános állásfoglalást ad a fejlődő országok legnagyobb gondjait okozó HIV/AIDS, tuberkulózis és malária kapcsán, amely főként a betegségek kezeléséhez történő hozzájutás fontos kérdésével foglalkozik.
* Acquis: azon szabályok és gyakorlatok összessége, amelyeket az EU-hoz újonnan csatlakozó államoknak magukra kötelezőnek el kell fogadniuk. (A ford. megjegyzése)