Begegnungen27_Glatzb
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 27:21–35.
FERENC GLATZ
Balkan Policy and the Renaissance of Balkan Studies 2005
I. Changes in Foreign Political Thinking
1. The Eastern Enlargement of the European Union: Beyond the Two Millennia-Old Borders
The Europe policy of the coming decade will be about two issues of world historical and one of continental dimensions. The first one is about the new world economic and power political positioning of the continent (the US, Middle East, China). The second one would be continental and about the internal administrative, social and cultural structure of the Union. The third one is about South-Eastern Europe and the Balkan region within it. Now we would speak about the third one, about the scene of the Southeast European enlargement of the Union, and about the region called the Balkans.
Up to 2004 the enlargement of the European Union covered areas that have been linked to major West European integrative political entities by closer or looser political organisations (and cultural and religious ones) for two thousand years. (The map of the archaeological sites of the so-called Halstatt culture, beginning in about 800 B.C. almost perfectly covers the map of the present European Union. And cultures of common roots, such as Western Christianity, and even organisations of territorial administration, states based on similar principles have been alive to this day.) From 2004 on the European Union went beyond the borders of the former Holy Roman Empire, but included as yet only territories of Western Christian culture and traditional political institutions.
From 2007 on, however, the European Union has accepted the accession of societies of different political culture, different religion and customs. The years 2004 and 2007 are key dates in the history of the European continent and European culture. The new territories are going to influence the future of Europe as a whole. They will affect even the structure of the Union.
With the eastern enlargement of the European Union the peoples of the Carpathian basin and of the Danube valley have been included into a new world economic and cultural sphere of interest.
On 1 May 2004 ten states of Eastern Europe joined the European Union, including two states of the Carpathian basin, namely Slovakia and Hungary. In April 2005 the European Union signed Accession Treaties with Bulgaria and Romania, and put their accession to the Union in the perspective of the year 2007. On 3 October 2005 negotiations were opened with Croatia and Turkey, and preparations were begun for stabilisation and accession pacts with Serbia-Montenegro. The analysis and assessment of the south-eastern space (Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia-Montenegro and Kosovo) is under progress to find out how far they meet the Union criteria fixed in 1993 (in Copenhagen). It is clear from the statements of Union leaders that the Union is not planning to include further states in the negotiations preparing for admission beside the states of the region.*
Now already 25 states are participating in the enlargement of the Union. As experience gathered so far shows the admission of the new countries means an active role for states located in the region neighbouring the candidates. (This is called ’new neighbourhood policy’.) It also offers new opportunities to individuals, to citizens living in the neighbourhood of the region of candidate countries. Enlargement is also a challenge for the entrepreneurial strata as well as for intellectuals. Hungary and the other states contiguous with the Balkan region have to reconsider their foreign political directions, including those of economic, transport and cultural policy. It is recommended to widen their radius of movement that became one-sided after 1990 and oriented to Western Europe, to include the Southeast European (Balkan) space in order to utilise opportunities and because of the new competitive situation.
2. Economic-Military Interests and Research
Presumably with the enlargement of the European Union the Southeast European space would attract not only the researchers of international politics and investors, but also those interested in the society and culture.
During the past one thousand years the region was a field of military and strategic conflicts. It was the region of conflicts at first between Roman and Byzantine Christianity and the power alliances built on them (1054–1453), next between the Ottoman and the Western and Orthodox Christian world (1453–1878), and, finally, between the Soviet and the Western spheres of interest (1945–1992).
World interest in the region naturally followed military and political interests.
1878–1920. After the withdrawal of the Turkish Empire (1878) the region attracted the attention of British, French and German (also Austrian and Hungarian) researchers. In addition to the traditional British interest (in Greece) this led to German, Austrian and Hungarian scholarly activities in South-Eastern Europe (1878–1920). (History, archaeology, ethnography, geography.)
1920–1992. At the time of the expansion of the Soviet zone and the existence of Yugoslavia attention shown toward the region (1920–1992) was determined and nourished by interest in the Soviet Union. It resulted in a general attention towards Slav peoples, and Balkan studies in particular, in the development of institutes, conferences, etc., all over the world. (Mention should be made particularly of research into South-Eastern Europe with its centre in Munich which was originally launched with a programme of research into the German minorities in South-Eastern Europe, but became much broader and complex, which has produced the most fundamental historical manuals from 1934 to this date.) We regard the Austrian researches into Southeast Europe equally important: the activities of the institutes of the Universities of Vienna and Graz and of the Österreichische Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut (OSI) in Vienna.
1992–2007. After the collapse of the Soviet Union (1992) these researches slumped all over the world, research workshops disintegrated, because the states did not find it a ’strategic aim’ to ’support’ experts, their periodicals and institutes dealing with the space with the money of the state. (An exception is Munich.) It is true that a lot of political analyses were produced about the Balkan crisis of 1992–1999, but it could not keep the earlier institutions of ’East European Research’ alive. General interest in the Russians and in the peoples of the Balkans decreased in the US as well as in Western Europe, not speaking about the small occupied states of the former Soviet zone (such as Hungary). The rearrangement of the global power system has also contributed to it: international investors and military-political state strategists alike have been focusing on the growing strength of the Far Eastern space, and mostly of China.
Now, or after 2007 the situation may change. South-Eastern Europe would still remain a field of direct conflict between Russian interests and the NATO. This factor would undeniably influence and even promote the admission of the states of this region to the EU and NATO. Yet the main characteristic of the region would be its attachment to the Union. This fact would revaluate South-Eastern Europe for the market of goods and capital and for world economy. Just as with progress in consolidation Russia would also attract more the attention of Far Eastern as well as EU entrepreneurs than today.
No matter what the economic, military and political future would bring about, surely enlargement and integration would once again provoke attention towards the region, and would create research institutes, chairs and projects monitoring and analysing the region.
3. Promoting Interest of Eastern Europe
There is a need for change in Hungarian foreign political thinking today. Preserving the linkages to Western Europe of three hundred years, we have to help the birth of a new, general interest of Eastern Europe in South-Eastern Europe. Our assumption is that the eastern enlargement of the Union and the new Southeast European processes of integration will change not only the political environment of the Hungarian state but also the daily life of the country’s inhabitants.
In the next decade the ’main route’ of European politics would go through Hungary. New challenges, competition and opportunities would be opening up for citizens of states located in the region as well as of contiguous states (Germans, Austrians, Russians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Italians, etc.). Therefore it has to be explored what competitive situation and mutual investments would be made possible in the next decade. We have to build new institutions for the dissemination of knowledge. We repeat: in the next decade European policy will be partly about rivalries between continents and partly about the relationship between Western Europe and South-Eastern as well as Eastern Europe. It will be forced out by considerations of the environment, energy, gaining markets and investments. (It is already visible.) Hungary is one of the gateways to the Russian as well as the Balkan region. It is in the interest of everybody that we perform this gateway function intelligently and in a cultured manner.
II. The Promotion of Research into South-Eastern Europe
1. Hungary’s Interest and the Possibilities of Hungarian Researchers
The history of Hungarians and of the Hungarian state has been closely intertwined with the history of the peoples and states of the Balkan region.
Several such peoples (Romanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, etc.) lived inside the Hungarian state the majority of whom were located southeast of the state. Yet, after the expulsion of the Turks (1690) Hungarian foreign policy and political thinking took a one-sided West European direction. It had understandable reasons, for it lived in a common body politic with Austria. It was also attracted by a more developed technical and economic standard: in the 18th and 19th centuries Western Europe was the centre of the modernisation of the world. It was also linked to that orientation by Christian ideology and its institutions, the Catholic and Protestant Churches, determining one thousand years of intellectual and political thinking. Yet, after the liberation of the Balkans (1878) the Hungarian state, a constituent of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, began an active Balkan-policy which was part of the Southeast European interest-sphere policy of the Monarchy. This political activation had also led to laying the foundations of learning about the Balkans in Hungary. It is commonly known that the ’Hungarian lobby’ represented the position of national and religious tolerance in the foreign policy of the Monarchy. The reason was that the Carpathian basin itself was also a multinational and multilingual area. Similar views were represented by the politician Benjámin Kállay as well as by Lajos Thallóczy, who pressed for regular Balkan studies and himself understood the region well. Between 1900 and 1914 little was realised of these research plans conceived at the beginning of the century. It was due to the fact that only a tiny group of the political elite knew the ethnic, religious specificities and customs of the Southeast European space that the Slav peoples of the Hungarian state and of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Romanians wanted to quit the common state.
The thinking of Hungarian intellectuals was attracted to Western Europe after 1920 by the fact that the thousand-year-old Hungarian state disintegrated in 1918–1920. The historical body politic lost two thirds of its territory. The intellectuals of the age thought that it disintegrated mostly as a consequence of the policy of the Western Great Powers. (They did not want to consider that the causes of disintegration were to be looked for in local ethnic and social as well as political problems.) The stratum of Hungarian politicians and the intellectuals wanted to regain lost territories with the help of the Western Great Powers. This trend of foreign policy and public thinking did not favour researches into the Balkans, and the spread of learning about the Balkans in general. Moreover, the new southern (Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom) and the south-eastern neighbours (Romania) became important enemies of Hungary. (The ’modest’ institute organised in the University of Pécs was an exception.)
After 1945 Hungary found itself in ’forced friendship’ with its Southeast European neighbours in the Soviet zone. This friendship had a dual result: it partly helped the institutionalisation of Balkan studies, and partly, under pressure, intellectuals did not sense the real importance of knowledge related to the Balkans. ’Forced friendship’ encouraged reality: part of the intellectuals set up cultural and scientific societies linking our foreign political thinking with our Southeast European neighbours. East European and Slavic studies were pursued at the universities and through them we could get acquainted with our Southeast European neighbours and we could converse with them. Several experts found a livelihood in studying Balkan culture. At the same time this ’forced friendship’ had the disadvantage (just as the introduction of Russian language, too) that the knowledge about the Balkans and Eastern Europe in general was brought on us by political pressure. Society regarded this new culture as the product of the political system forced upon us. Thus after the collapse of the political system and the withdrawal of the Soviet troops research into Eastern and South-Eastern Europe became ’old-fashioned’. (The knowledge of the Slavic languages of the neighbouring countries also decreased in general.)
2. The Emancipation of Regional Researches
One can only remember with respect and gratitude those West European, British, German, French, and American as well as Russian scholars who wrote analytical papers and comprehensive works on the Southeast European space, and edited the relevant periodicals during the past one and a half centuries. At the same time researchers of the local states have produced an enormous quantity of historical, ethnographic, musicological, literary and economic analyses and detailed studies. Yet synthesising and comparative approach was left to be done by foreign colleagues. Researchers living in the region rarely found each other; they mostly supplied primary material to the summaries made in the West. This is a deficit of the local research organisations. (One of the causes of this deficit may be found in the local and nation-state animosities.)
As preparations for the eastern enlargement of the European Union, synthesising and comparative programmes may be launched, together with locally operating institutes and periodicals. A networking of researchers and their respective institutes active in the region is necessary. We have several networks in mind, evolving by themes. Several synthesising research programmes running parallel are needed in natural science, economics, historiography, ethnography, political science, etc.
The education of the new generations of researchers in every specialisation is considered as a primary objective. We expect the growth of a new generation of Balkan researchers. The new Centre for Balkan Studies in Budapest also wishes to promote the education of the rising generation. Its basic institutions are a private and an academic one. One is the Europe Institute Budapest (founded in 1990), which is based hundred per cent on private capital, and receives postgraduate researchers from all parts of the world. It has flats for visiting professors and a young researchers’ hostel of its own. The other basic institution is the Social Science Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Strategic Research Programme of the HAS. Presumably there would be a large number of initiatives similar to ours in the coming decade in the states of the region, and the network of the institutions of Balkan studies would be built with specialised faculties, periodicals, institutes and learned societies.
III. A Research Hypothesis
1. On Our Concept of the Balkans
The concept of South-Eastern Europe comprises the Carpathian basin and the ’Balkans’ southeast of the Danube and the Carpathian mountains.
At first every research has to define its spatial and time frame. It has to be done even if those limits of time and space may be challenged. And even if we know that precisely during the course of research we are going to modify the time frame and the geographic borders. Our research target is the space stretching southeast from the Carpathian basin to the seas. We label the space as ’Balkans’, originating from a nineteenth-century European geographer. (He took the name of the Balkan mountain in Bulgaria and we adopt it now.) We use the category of physical geography which draws the northern border of the Balkan region at the line of the Rivers Drava and Sava, the Southern Carpathians and the Danube. Thus the territory of present-day Croatia as well as Greece is included in it, but Romania only tangentially (Figure 1). But the constricted, cultural and historical interpretation of our research target is also accepted. In that case the dividing line should be the four hundred years of Ottoman Turkish occupation. (It shut off the major Western intellectual trends, such as Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightenment from the region.) The separation of Western Christianity from the Eastern (Orthodox) one may just as well be a determinant of the cultural region. (Then, in this case Croatia would rather belong to Central Europe, Romania would belong partly to Central Europe and partly to the Balkans.)
Naturally we are aware of the heated scholarly and political debates of the past two hundred years about the concepts of ’Southeast Europe’, and the ’Balkans’. We know that the ’Balkan’ concept of intellectuals living in Western Europe was not simply a geographical connotation. This is how peoples living West of the region and regarding themselves as more advanced and located under well-ordered political conditions wished to distinguish themselves from their south-eastern neighbours. The term ’Balkan’ was used and in some circles of intellectuals is still used as a synonym of ’lack of culture’, ’corruption’, ’political anarchy’ and a ’powder keg’. The historiography and the politicians of peoples living in the space called Balkans on the other hand, wished to stress that they belonged (or wanted to belong) to the intellectually, technically and economically stronger Western peoples. Therefore they did not like to be called ’Balkan’ people.
We do not use by any means the name ’Balkan’ as a category indicating ’quality’. For us the Balkan region is a uniquely colourful geographic and social unit if its specificities of physical geography, the ethnic and religious composition of its population, or its settlement system is viewed.
2. Geographic and Cultural Diversity
The marked articulation of the surface plays a major role in the conservation of ethnic and religions diversity (Figure 2), which had an important function in the development of small and isolated communities. It lends a special feature to the location of the Balkans among the ’major spaces’ of the continent. Namely, it is a dividing as well as linking territory between Europe and Asia Minor. This is what determined and still determines its features within world economy.
It was the result of this location that the region was the western border area of the Turkish Empire for five hundred years, a territory in almost constant contact with the Holy Roman and the Turkish Empires. In addition to its geographic location it is this five hundred years of history which is the other factor that determined and still continues to determine the social articulation and ethnic-religious diversity of the space. It is inhabited by an ethnically uniquely mixed population of Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Muslim religion. (Just as the population along the borders of major economic and political empires has been mixed because of constant intercourse in all parts of the world.)
The tolerant nature of five hundred years of Turkish rule is the third factor that has caused the survival of ethnic and religious diversity (the unique cultural diversity of the region). The Turkish Empire was far more tolerant towards ethnic and religious differences than the West or East European Christian states were. It did not divest peoples living on its territory of their nationality as it was done by the major empires of Western Europe.
3. The Concept of 'Historical Osmosis’
The ethnic-religious diversity of peoples living at the border areas of different cultures, the differences in their customs as well as their mutual influence and mixing are well known social phenomena. The concept of ’historical osmosis’ is used to indicate them.
The phenomenon of osmosis is known from chemistry: the characteristics of two bodies mix and exist side by side at the outer rim (border areas) of the two bodies in constant touch. In case they mix (assimilate to each other: marry, or live together when moved to the same settlement) they produce a new quality. If not, they would live in constant tension. The whole of South-Eastern Europe is characterised by the co-existence and osmosis of the cultures and peoples representing Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and even Asia Minor.
The cultural diversity of the region is unique. Whatever was considered yesterday by our predecessors as ’backwardness’ we are today inclined to call ’specificity’, and ’a different kind of development’. We turn with distinguished interest towards the colourful culture of the region, and are also curious: would this miraculous diversity be tolerated by the technical modernisation of our age? Could the ethnic and religious diversity that resulted in constant warfare for six hundred years, now be one of the model areas of cultural diversity on the planet Earth in the 21st century?
Accession to the European Union would speed up technical and infrastructural development in the region, the mobility of the population would grow, and presumably the disintegration of traditional communities would also become faster. Traditions and religious linkages would disintegrate in daily life, ethnic mixing would be faster in the settlements and families, and as a result ethnic-religious tensions would dissolve. The question is what the outcome would be. Would it be the same that had taken place in the case of similarly mixed populations during the past two hundred years, for instance, in the Carpathian basin, as a result of which a uniquely mixed nation, the Hungarian emerged? The process that has resulted in a national culture of mixed ethnicity but singular language, namely Hungarian? Or, would the region be organised into cantons along the example of Switzerland, where the different linguistic and ethnic communities organise themselves into rigorously drawn territorial administrative units, but live side by side in an exemplary system of federal administration? Or, would there emerge a new kind of territorial organisation and administration that we still do not know?
IV. The Research Programme
1. The Centre for Balkan Studies (October 2005)
a. The aims of the Centre for Balkan Studies are:
– It wishes to promote the economic, social and political approximation of the Balkan region to the other regions of Central-Eastern Europe, to Hungary and to the European Union. It wishes to help Hungary and Hungarian researchers and entrepreneurs to take up roles in this process.
– It wishes to acquaint persons and institutions interested in the Balkan region with one another.
– It wishes to present the natural, economic, social and intellectual specificities of the Balkan region.
– The Centre would elaborate proposals for the political sphere concerning the mediating role of Hungary.
– The Centre as a virtual research institute offers a forum to researchers and entrepreneurs dealing with the Balkan region. It wishes to promote the regular co-operation of Hungarian and European researchers involved in the Balkan region.
– It wishes to promote the major cross-border projects of natural economy, production, commerce and infrastructure.
b. The means at the disposal of the Centre for Balkan Studies:
– It launches an internet periodical that would organise the co-operation of experts and those interested in the Balkans. It publishes papers together with the ’Observer’ updated monthly. (The periodical is launched in Hungarian but with summaries in English, German, and south Slavic languages).
– It regularly organises conferences and gets papers done in these topics.
– It publishes a series of booklets on the Balkan region. (1. The Concept of the Balkans; 2. Dayton; 3. Regional Rearrangement.)
– Association: “Friends of the Balkans.”
The Centre engages itself in the long-term economic, social and environmental alternatives of the region and also of Hungary. It wishes to deal with issues of current foreign and security policy only tangentially. It offers partnership to the active political administration and its background institutions of the day. Daily politics is only a partial factor in our interest, but its importance is rather great: for it is a means of realising long-term opportunities.
The Centre pays special attention to the study of the interest of Hungary in the new regional integration.
c. Programme Council and programmes
The Programme Council of the Centre includes several leading personalities of scientific life, among them representatives of agricultural sciences, settlement studies, economics, transportation science, protection of the environment, water management, law, geography, minority research, political science and historiography.
Members:
– Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences József Bayer (political science), Zoltán Bedő (agricultural science), György Enyedi (spatial development), Ferenc Glatz (Chairman, historical sciences), Béla Kádár (economics), Pál Michelberger (transportation), István Láng (environment), László Somlyódy (water management).
– Directors of institutes at universities and of the HAS: Margit Balogh (Church), András Inotai (economics), Sándor Kerekes (environmental management), Vanda Lamm (law), János Rechnitzer (spatial development), Zsolt Rostoványi (Middle East, international relations), Tamás Sárközy (economic law), Ferenc Schweitzer (geography), László Szarka (minority policy), Zoltán Szász (history). Managers of the programme: Attila Pók and Andrea Antal.
– Members of the Programme Committee: Erhard Busek, former Vice- Chancellor of Austria, Special Co-ordinator of the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, Andrei Pleñu, former Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Director of the Europe College in Bucharest, Dušan Kovač, Vice-President of the Slovakian Academy of Sciences, Arnold Suppan, President of the Institute for East and Southeast Europe in Vienna and Members of the HAS: Ferenc Glatz, Béla Kádár, György Enyedi, István Láng, Ernő Marosi.
2. Intellectual and financial resources of the research programme
a. The Europe Institute Budapest
Ferenc Glatz, Director of the Europe Institute Budapest (founded in 1990, see: www.europainstitut.hu) proposed on 10 June 2005, at the meeting of the academic council to set up a Centre for Balkan Studies in Budapest. During the preparatory talks the National Programme for Strategic Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences joined the initiative together with the Social Science Research Centre of HAS and several noted Members of the HAS, university professors and public personalities.
Ever since its foundation in 1990 the Europe Institute Budapest has been continuously engaged in the topic of the eastern enlargement of the European Union. It has participated in several all-European projects studying eastern enlargement since 1991. Since its foundation it has been devoting special attention to the research and organisation of Hungary’s scientific and cultural relations with the East European and Southeast European space. The Institute receives scholarship-holders and visiting professors, a significant proportion of whom come from that space. It organises conferences and publishes a series of books in foreign languages (Begegnungen – Crossroads) the topics of which are related to the space. The Institute provides premises and infrastructure necessary to the organisation of the new Centre for Balkan Studies, it also finances the post of director and secretary, and it offers annually a 12-month fee for professors and 24 months of scholarships to postgraduates (in a residential hostel) engaged in Balkan research.
b. National Programme of Strategic Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
The National Programme of Strategic Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was launched in 1996 with the aim that “the societies” of Central Eastern Europe ”have to define jointly their common local interests in the major continental and intercontinental rearrangement. And these local interests should be asserted, if possible, at the European forums.” In 1997 the Programme elaborated plans on the level of the space about a regional ecological monitoring system, about a strategy of transport and water management, about the spatial development prospects of the Danube valley and the Plain. (They were published in monographs.) The concepts elaborated were not implemented partly because of the so-called ’Balkan wars’ (1999), and partly because of the lack of funds. The Programme Council of Strategic Studies took its position at its session on 25 June 2005 to support the setting up of the Centre for Balkan Studies. It finances conferences, the invitation of scholarship-holders, and publications. At the same time it recommended to the President of HAS the inclusion of the development of researches into the Balkans in the ideas of science policy of the Academy (young researchers, supporting projects, etc.).
c. Social Science Research Centre of HAS
The Social Science Research Centre of HAS comprises nine social science research institutes and two research groups. The Centre was set up to organise long-term enterprises in social sciences. It is headed by a Scientific Council. The 24 October 2005 session of the Scientific Council decided for supporting the programme and the directors of eight institutes of the Social Science Research Centre of HAS were ready to take up some office in the Programme Council (political science, historiography, law, sociology, ethnography, economy, archaeology, minority research).
The initiative was supported by the then Foreign Minister Mr Ferenc Somogyi, too, who accepted to give the introductory speech at the opening conference held on 15 November. Several supporters have come forward outside the Social Science Research Centre, such as the Institutes of Agricultural Science and Geography, as well as Corvinus University, the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Szent István University, some departments of ELTE University. The Programme expects the agricultural and industrial sphere (chambers) as well as the national organisations of entrepreneurs and financial institutions and of individual entrepreneurs to join in.
Literature
In addition to comments by György Enyedi, Emil Niederhauser and Zoltán Szász I have used, among others, the following works and I also recommend them for reading.
Castellan, Georges: History of the Balkans. From Mohammed the Conqueror to Stalin. East European Monographs. Columbia University Press, New York, 1992.
Hösch, Edgar: Geschichte des Balkans. Verlag C.H. Beck oHG. München, 2004.
Hösch, Edgar–Nehring, Karl–Sundhaussen, Holm (Hgg.): Lexikon zur Geschichte Südosteuropas. Wien u.a., 2004.
Haupchik, Dennis P.: The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism. Palgrave, New York, 2001.
Janković, Branimir M.: The Balkans in International Relations. St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1988.
Johnson, Lonnie R.: Central Europe. Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996.
Juhász József: A délszláv háborúk (The South Slav Wars). Napvilág Kiadó, Budapest, 1997.
Kaser, Karl: Südosteuropäische Geschichte und Geisteswissenschaft. 2., völlig neu bearbeitete und aktualisierte Auflage. Böhlau Verlag, Wien, Köln, Weimar, 2002.
Kocsis Károly (ed.). Délkelet-Európa térképekben (Southeast Europe on Maps). Institute of Geography of HAS, Kossuth Kiadó Rt., Budapest, 2005.
Krausz Tamás (ed.): A Balkán-háborúk és a nagyhatalmak. Rigómezőtől Koszovóig. Történeti és politológiai előadások. (The Balkan Wars and the Great Powers. From Kosovo Pole to Kosovo. Historical and political science lectures.) Politikatörténeti Füzetek XIII. Napvilág Kiadó, Budapest, 1999.
Palotás Emil: A nemzetállamiság alternatívái a Balkánon a 19. század végén – 20. század elején (Alternatives of the Nation State in the Balkans in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries). História Könyvtár. Előadások a történettudomány műhelyeiből 10. História–MTA Történettudományi Intézete, Budapest, 1999.
Plachka, Richard G.–Mack, Karlheinz (Hgg.): Die Auflösung des Habsurgerreiches. Zusammenbruch und Neuorientierung im Donauraum. Schriftenreihe des Österreichischen Ost- und Südosteuropa-Instituts. Band 3., Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, München, 1970.
Romsics Ignác: Nemzet, nemzetiség és állam. Kelet-Közép- és Délkelet-Európában a 19. és 20. században (Nation, Nationality and State. In East-Central and Southeast Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries.) Napvilág Kiadó, Budapest, 1998.
Seewann, Gerhard–Dippold Péter (Hgg.): Bibliographisches Handbuch der ethnischen Gruppen Südosteuropas. 2 Bände. Südosteuropa-Bibliographie. Ergänzungsband 3. R. Oldenbourg Verlag, München, 1997.
Terzić, Slavenko (ed.): Europe at the Crossroads. New Walls or a United Europe. Collection of Works. Volume 17. The International Round Table, Belgrade, April 28–29 1999. Historical Institute, Belgrade, 1999.
Internet sources:
Szerződés az Európai Unió tagállamai, valamint a Bolgár Köztársaság és Románia között az Európai Unióhoz történő csatlakozásról. (Treaty between the Member States of the European Union and the Republic of Bulgaria and Romaniaon Accession to the European Union) Az Európai Unió Hivatalos Lapja. 2005.06.21. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/hu/oj/2005/ l_157/ l_15720050621hu00110027.pdf
Monitoring report on the state of preparedness for EU membership of Bulgaria and Romania. Brussels, 26.9.2006. http://ec.europa.hu/enlargement/pdf/ key_documents/2006/sept/report_bg_ro_2006_en.pdf.
May 2006 Monitoring Report on Bulgaria’s preparedness for EU accession. http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2006/monitoring_report_bg_en.pdf
May 2006 Monitoring Report on Romania. Preparations for EU accession. http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2006/monitoring_report_ro_en.pdf.
Bulgaria 2005. Comprehensive Monitoring Report. (2005.10.15) http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/key_documents/2005/sec1352_cmr_master_bg_college_en.pdf.
Romania 2005. Comprehensive Monitoring Report. (2005.10.15) http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/key_documents/2005/sec1354_cmr_master_ro_college_en.pdf.
Begegnungen27_Glatza
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 27:7–18.
FERENC GLATZ
Changes in Foreign Political Thinking, 2004–2006
In Place of a Foreword
The text below, attached to the first volume of the Centre for Balkan Studies as a substitute for a Foreword, was written in June 2004, after the Europe Forum held in Aachen and the Chinese-European cultural meeting in Beijing. I also presented it at the committee meeting of the National Strategic Programme of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences on 11 June 2004, where I argued for a ’Balkan Project’ to be launched jointly and for a series of round-table discussions on the European Union to be broadcast by Duna Television. The television series was broadcast in ten parts as a monthly feature between June 2004 and May 2005, and the Balkan Project was launched afterwards, in October 2005. Now the text is attached to the volume on the Balkans as a foreword, for it was a functional antecedent of the series of conferences (and activities) on the Balkans, intending to call the attention of politicians, social scientists and economic experts to the Southeast European space and to the significance of thinking in terms of world politics. We felt and now, in December 2006, we are still of the view that artificially generated skirmishes in domestic politics occupy too big a place in Hungarian public thinking while a too limited space is allocated to world politics. And that too, at a time when every local activity is being increasingly determined by global factors…
I. 2004: Narrowing the Horizon of Politics
Changes are necessary in Hungarian foreign political thinking. It is necessary in the thinking of politicians as well as of entrepreneurs and intellectuals.
In 2004 Hungary became a member of the EU, and now the inhabitants of the country have to learn to think in terms of a territorial administrative unit of the size of half a continent instead of the borders of the nation state, they have to plan their mobility and the conditions of success within the boundaries of the EU.
The extension of the Union borders would continue, and that too, in a south-eastern direction. No matter what the pace of implementation will be, this is going to be one of the greatest enterprises of European history in the coming decades. Hungary is to be located in the mainstream of European history. South-eastern enlargement may not only mean a consumer market for the West European products, it is not only a forced modernisation for the Balkan region, but it may contribute to the economic and cultural dynamism of the entire European continent. It may promote the competitiveness of the continent in global competition. The inland seas, for instance, of the region may become and presumably would become the new ports and trans-shipment points of the European-Asian trade, offering a broader market and mediating activities to the entire inner European space. It includes the Carpathian basin, too.
The benefits of the Carpathian basin on offer by the south-eastern enlargement of the Union can be summarised as follows: 1. mediating traffic between Western and South-Eastern Europe may pass through here, particularly if it is accompanied by an upturn of European-Asian trade. 2. The region developing now and to be developed, namely the Balkans, is contiguous, therefore it has an advantage of having knowledge to investments there about the locality, due to its historical, human and cultural relations. 3. It can have access to sea ports, for the first time after 1918, which does not facilitate access to the routes of world trade in general, but enables that local products, part of which is impossible to sell because of the lack of sea ports, reach the world market.
Intellectual Grumbles 1990–2004
The principles and practice of the foreign political direction of state administration after the change of the system should be reconsidered. Comparing the programmes of subsequent governments the principles respectably strive to pinpoint the place of the Hungarian state in world and regional policy. The three basic principles on the directions of state foreign policy still valid evolved by the mid-1990s. They are well known from political expositions, namely: 1. Euro-Atlantic integration, 2. development of a set of regional relations, 3. representing the interests of Hungarians living beyond the borders. No one challenges their importance. During the past one and a half decades, however, party programmes and the presentations of the prime ministers in Parliament as well as government programmes have not been discussed meaningfully either by academics or by the society. Foreign policy has a large number of ’experts’ and ’commentators’ including the author of these lines. But there are few among historians, political scientists and economists who have specialised in this field. It is a pity.
It is also a pity that the internal political skirmishes of the system change, the intensity of changing the guard in positions and in the economy (from 1990 on) have diverted attention from the importance of foreign policy. Just at a time when with the disintegration of the Soviet zone the mobility range of the state and of the citizens has expanded. And the attention of the press and of politicians was also diverted by domestic political fights from the intellectual grumbles: was it really in the interests of the nation to subordinate the Soviet-Russian relations to such an extent to anti-Soviet emotions with stupid and swaggering posters in 1990? One should only have the one “Tovarishi konec” (Comrades, /this is/ the end) in mind (and all this after the Government signed the agreement on the withdrawal of Soviet troops in March 1990!). Our view was retained only on the level of grumbling that the one-sided West European orientation, dominant in Hungarian history for four hundred years, should be supplemented. And that too, not only in the direction of the American continent, which took place rapidly after 1990, but also towards the Third World, towards China, India, Japan and Eastern Europe. It was not discussed either and only ’club-like grumbling’ could be heard about the need for a set of relations on a new basis with Eastern Europe, with South-Eastern Europe and with the Soviet-Russians. We said that the one-sided orientation was justified in the 18th to 20th centuries, for answers to the vital issues of Hungarians were mostly given in the Western cities. Moreover, it was the Western Great Powers that had drawn the borders of nation states in our region. The post-1990 unfolding of globalisation, however, offers new opportunities, among others also in societies outside the Euro-Atlantic space. Paradoxically earlier, in the 1970s and 1980s, and with the passage of time the foreign affairs, party, administrative as well as commercial and cultural apparatus of the party-state could cleverly assert our national interests on the ripples of the political waters of the Soviet Union in that very Euro-Atlantic space. It is silly – we kept on saying – to constantly subordinate national interests to the current political dogmas of ideology. As it was done by the post-1949 administration and corrected with so much achievement by the post-1974 apparatus despite Soviet occupation. Now, in 2004, it should be added that we should recognise the eastern and south-eastern opportunities available to us at least at the time of the eastern enlargement of the European Union, and we should give up the one-sided Euro-Atlantic state foreign policy.
Wouldn’t the government creating an Act on Minorities (1993) unique in Europe have to develop a concept in case the rearrangement of state borders in Central-Eastern Europe took place? And it did happen in 1992! Neither the assertion of the post-1938 solutions (Slovakia becoming independent and Yugoslavia disintegrating), nor the collapse of the post-1945 model (the withdrawal of the Soviet Union from this space) provoked actions from the Hungarian government towards the international powers. We did not speak about a territorial revision but about safeguarding minority rights at least to the extent as they were evolved after the peace treaties of 1919 and 1920, which were not functioning after 1945 due to the Soviet presence. (Such a draft was drawn up in academic circles for the management of the minority issue: it was a code of international behaviour produced in the spring of 1992. It was forwarded to forums of the European Union. And we distributed it in several languages also in Western and Eastern Europe. The Government, though expressing its goodwill, did not link the legal regulation of the minority issue in Hungary /1993/ to demanding the proposed regulation in Central-Eastern Europe.) In the next period (1994–1995) pressing for an economic and political role to be taken up by Budapest also remained an intellectual grumble: the creation of a ’Central-East European Davos’ was demanded (1994) that could have played a role in preparing the accession of the region to the Union and its ’EU capability’. The special issues of the space could have been exposed on that forum. The differences of interests from those of the societies of Western and Northern Europe could have been presented either in the field of the migration of labour, or of agricultural products and spatial development. (These were topics where our lack of preparation has, subsequently, caused great disadvantages. And this lack of preparation may even qualify as a political mistake.)
Today, when we are writing the first summaries of the history of the period, we are vigorously asking how far state administration helped the Hungarian society to prepare itself for receiving the norms of the EU and managing their effects between 1994 and 2004. Or, why at least the state specialist and self-government apparatus was not prepared for the local implementation of the Union norms? Why were they not prepared for discussions with the Union bureaucrats, or at least for asserting local interests? The historian of posterity is expected to express serious condemnation in this field, too.
Then there are intellectual questions probing into the 'lack of concept’, – already from 1990. Was the trimming of foreign political administration and of foreign representations right that started already at the time of the system change, in 1989, under the title of ’deregulation’, otherwise saving expenses? Deregulation had great merit in slimming down the internal administration of the state, but many of us hold that it was ’suicidal’ in the field of ’foreign affairs’ from 1989 on. It cut off those links that were developed practically in all parts of the world on the basis of bad or good considerations by foreign policy between 1974 and 1989. From 1989 and 1990 on the state at last became an open one, trade, enterprise and the movement of persons became free, and was relieved of the limitations of the Cold War. And precisely then administration cut off links of representation, links that offered success and advancement to us, to the great sorrow of us, world wandering intellectuals, tradesmen and entrepreneurs. (Meanwhile, the internal administration of self-governments and the state specialist one was once again swelled on the basis of party political and ideological considerations after 1990.) An introverted political thinking, unilaterally preferring domestic political power struggles had become dominant in Hungary, which failed to recognise that every single classroom, workplace and office was part of a global competition at the turn of the millennium. And it was not recognised that the existence of a small nation and state (a small community of taxpayers) is more dependent on global outlook than ever before. 'Foreign political’ considerations should be given a larger place in political as well as economic thinking.
Incidentally, does or did any of the administrations have a vision of what kind of community of Hungarian citizens and nation is envisaged for the 21st century? This question was put by us repeatedly during the past fifteen years. We imagine a citizen open to the world and moving as an entrepreneur in it culturally and as an employee or investor as well. We imagine a person who may find it difficult to find his/her way in the hectic hustles of Budapest, and in the nerve-wrecking formal and informal jostles of the inner city, but would be able to feel at home in practically every corner of the world. And we have imagined (and still imagine) a state that helps its citizens to acquire global competitiveness. It would help them, among others, by maintaining a stronger-than-average administration of foreign affairs, and not only in the Ministry. Well, this has not happened. In 2004 we could add: at least now, as members of the Union, we should pay attention to world market challenges and opportunities, those of the economic and cultural market, and we should consider representations in world politics as a priority branch within the state administration.
The Globalisation of Politics
The interpretation of ’state foreign policy’ should also be revised. According to our experience it is being done also in the Member States of the EU. It can be observed that the foreign political administration of the ’Member States’ of the EU is strained by three novel structural conflicts. 1. The globalisation of specialist administrations. 2. Harmony between following the common foreign policy of the EU and the representation of the interests of the nation state. 3. The unfolding of integration in global dimension taking place parallel to the Union and European integration, and representing the interests of the nation state within it. Let us see them item by item.
1. The internationalisation of specialist policies. Historians are fully aware of the fact that the foreign relations of the country are not limited to state administration in the modern age, but extend over the system of international companies and cultural and scientific institutions. And they also know that international (inter-state) organisations have been formed by branches, including global ones ever since the beginning of the century (in the field of trade and economy as well as of culture). Specialised policies are also being conducted on the international scene, following the globalisation of production, trade and cultural and scientific activities. This trend also requires the specialist portfolios of states to conduct active international (specialist foreign) policy. Thus the 'foreign policy’ of the state is not restricted to the foreign ministry even within state administration, as a specialist portfolio, but extends over other ’specialist policies’, over the specialist portfolios within governance. Hence one of the specificities of the history of European governmental administration after WWII has been the establishment of 'foreign affairs’ sections within the specialist portfolios. Another of its specificities is the setting up of so-called inter-ministerial committees and organisations. A partial objective of it is to counter-balance over-specialisation hindering a proper survey of issues, with the aim of creating harmony between the international activities of branches and the foreign affairs apparatus of the state.
These conflicts became clear to many of us in the Hungarian state organisation (and also in the state organisation of the Union) when monitoring of the candidate countries for the European Union began in 1997 (at a time when Hungary still performed very well). Currently only critical grumbling is heard as yet, about the success in ensuring the efficiency of the ’foreign policy’ (that is European Union) of some branches, such as agriculture, environment, education, science, etc. How far the administrators of the special fields, and first of all units of production and services could be prepared for the Union norms? Did preparation for the EU excessively focused on the Foreign Ministry function well? (In our view actually a governmental mistake was made. Shouldn’t one pay attention to repeated ’grumbling’ coming from the academic and intellectual spheres warning that EU-policy was not simply the business of the Foreign Ministry? Now it has turned to the detriment of the country that foreign affairs administration was politically too strong within the government after 2002 and expropriated ’European policy’.)
2. The interests of the common EU foreign policy and the foreign policies of the individual Member States. It is visible right now, in the summer of 2004, that the Lisbon ideas (2000) projecting the European Union as one of the strongest spatial administrations of world economy by 2010 were rather wishful thinking only. Undoubtedly it is already seen that the EU failed to operate the available economic and labour potential with the required efficiency. Therefore it is not known how far specialist policies would become ’common Union policies’, in other words, how successfully the EU could be evolved into a unit of common spatial administration and an economic-cultural community with the authorisations of nation states lifted to Union level. Or, would the British be right who would still prefer a Union as a federation of associate states in a looser linkage? The Iraq war has spectacularly shaken the unity of the EU in the field of foreign policy. It has become clear that the autonomous movement of interest alliances of nation states and of their administrations is far stronger than the European (and even European Union) links. In January 2001 Javier Solana presented still self-confidently the four principles of the common foreign policy of the EU at the Berlin Europe Forum, assessing Nice. In May 2004 we were only speaking about the ‘illusion’ of a common foreign policy at the Aachen Europe Forum. (At the same place a question was put by a researcher whether we had any comprehensive ideas about the extent of the shrinking of the staff of nation-state administrations with the emergence of the common administration of the EU. The question was received by appreciating and self-critical laughter breaking out spontaneously.) The preparedness of the special administration of the newly admitted countries for the implementation of the common harmonisations with the EU was discussed with the same doubts in May 2004 in Aachen. It should be admitted though that the foreign ministers and secretaries of state of the new Member States delivered speeches with the usual, ’obligatory’ optimism and self-assurance (the representative of the Hungarian Government was not present). The contributions of the expert reporters, however, were full of figures testifying that the acceding countries were unable to present their preparedness for harmonisation, or a required knowledge of Europe and the adequate language skills. And to remain with the recent experiences of Aachen, a definite Euroscepticism was experienced in every country during the preparations for the elections to the European Parliament and ’disillusionment’ because of ’haggling’ around the constitution. The question is how far the foreign policy of nation states would be integrated on the level of traditional ’foreign affairs’, of diplomacy, and how far it would be integrated on the level of specialist policies (education, agriculture, environment, etc.). According to my experience a major step forward may be the 'Europeanisation’ of the different specialist portfolios in the coming years, for it would force unrestrained integration in production, in trade, in environment protection and in water and nature management. (In those fields of life that are more independent of party politics.) Naturally, this tendency would make the reconsideration of the century-old division of labour between the various specialist portfolios and the foreign ministry necessary within the state administration.
Today it is not yet seen exactly how the continental and nation-state administrations would be organically connected. There are uncertainties present in the administration of every Member State.
3. Global-level and continental (European) integration have been progressing side by side. Incidentally, in 1992, in the year of the birth of the European Union it could not be seen precisely what wave of integration would be brought about by information technology, by the scientific and technological revolution of our age in the second part of the 1990s. The revolution of the ’culture of communications’ has profoundly reshaped the productive organisations, private communications, and the set of cultural and intellectual contacts within some brief decades. And it is going to reshape the administrative units, too. It would produce hitherto never seen global associations of specialisations and branches; it is already creating entirely new interest alliances in the different points of the world. To put it simply: it is not at all sure that geographically close local communities are going to have common interests with their neighbours. The globalisation of market organisation would split up the interest communities of geographic and territorial integrations. It is not at all sure that the EU Member States would have interest allies within the EU, and it is not known how far the EU would be able to subordinate ’local’ interests to the ’continental ones’. Or to subordinate relationships that link the individual Member States or their smaller productive units to an integration emerging in another part of the world, or to nation states. It is beyond doubt that the foreign ministries as well as specialist ministries of the Union Member States would strive to assert the interests of their citizens in the world market even if it runs counter to continental interests.
The points of consideration could be listed further by us or by others, prominent authors on foreign affairs literature filling libraries or active foreign politicians that could be taken into account when shaping a new strategy of foreign affairs. We are sure only in one thing, namely that Hungary of little revenue income and few citizens needs a strategy of foreign policy. It is made necessary by changes taking place in the Union as well as in world economy and policy. And it is made necessary by world competition unfolding on the level of the individual, too. The time is soon to come when the citizen appraises the achievement of local (state) administration as to how far it serves his and his offspring’s global competitiveness. And not against the extent how far it serves its impulses, emotions and aversions, as it does today.
Widening of the Individual’s Radius of Action
We have been speaking about the necessary changes in foreign political thinking, about changes not only in state foreign policy, but in the thinking of the society as a whole. And first of all we are speaking about changes in the thinking of entrepreneurs and investors, and of the intellectuals. There is a need for change in their way of daily thinking, when they design their everyday aims in life, their vocation and occupation, the education of their children, or just their enterprising investments. Integration of planetary dimensions as well as within the EU, and its Southeast European enlargement would offer a framework of life the size of which is impossible to comprehend as yet. And it also offers a new set of tools, a new, digitalised set of communication to it. The radius of thinking and life has never before widened so suddenly and embracing such space in the five thousand years of modern human history. All those opportunities that are offered by this expansion of the radius in the field of investments, the creation of new production systems and the enrichment of knowledge primarily offer space to the middle classes of entrepreneurs and intellectuals. These are challenges for their daily activities. And these opportunities may be realised as the result of their daily activities, they are for the ’production’ of a better quality of life, for the spread and experiencing of more universal norms of life. Even in geographic regions like Black Africa, South America, or the regions of Central Asia where the desired level of the quality of life is just the creation of a bare physical minimum of existence, it could be relief from hunger and massive epidemics, just to offer some noble aim also to the civilisation of the white man so cleverly ’globalising’ in arms trade and placing goods and capital. It is these middle classes that would have to demand state administration to operate a school system, research bases and a diplomacy out of the taxpayer’s money that help them utilise the new technical possibilities of integration.
How far are these middle strata preparing for the new age of integration? We are just beginning to issue the first research topics to our students that may assess this ’preparedness for the world’. We have information in some areas, but they are quite discouraging. One can hardly find teaching of European skills in our universities, such as our faculties of arts. And there are even fewer where this kind of learning is pursued in foreign languages. The knowledge of foreign languages of our students may be adequate on paper, but as practicing teachers, and this is the unanimous experience of professors in the capital city, we find that their actual operational knowledge of foreign languages is not any better than it was in the second half of the 1980s. (And what is even sadder the level of their understanding of literature related to their subject has definitely declined even in their mother tongue.) The presence of the knowledge of world history has not improved in the university and college education, and strangely enough, interest in these topics has also decreased. When talking about these phenomena our teacher colleagues sadly say that the proportion of knowledge in world economy and culture has become weaker in the media and primarily in television than it used to be prior to the system change. (Was it the degradation of the ’Hungarian bases’ of foreign culture and economy that has been faster in state administration, or has the proportion of global knowledge decreased more drastically in television programmes since the change of the system?) Everything is suppressed by party political cock-fighting and scatter-brains as well as by the cult of criminal violence.
No matter how much we are arguing with the ’achievement politicians’ of optimistic face, presenting polished series of statistical data about our system of education and further education, we do not get far. Hence instead of debates we rather urge for the mobilisation of civil society and the joining of the forces of the private and public spheres.
June 2004
II. 2005–2006: The Balkan Project
The groups of researchers and professors have been formed already during the National Strategic Research Programme, launched by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1996. They have allied to explore the alternatives opening up before the Hungarian state and Hungarians at the turn of the millennium. The programmes included were assessing the level of water management, agriculture, transport, our system of spatial administration, the culture of a small language, our social care system, the harmonisation of our institutions with the European Union, energy management, the protection of nature, etc. In June 2005, when we undertook the announcement and beginning of a Balkan programme, we tried to concentrate those forces into a ’team’. We decided on launching a series of conferences discussing the consequences and opportunities of the south-eastern enlargement of the EU, with the participation of academic experts and the entrepreneurial sphere, as well as governmental and civil organisations. We decided upon the creation of a homepage and its operation as an electronic periodical to be updated monthly. (In Hungarian, for the time being, but also in English from the second half of 2007.) The homepage contains the texts of presentations and contributions to those conferences. The edited texts are also to be published in Hungarian and in English.
The Balkan Project was launched in October 2005. The Programme Committee has members from Hungarian institutes of the HAS, of universities as well as representatives of foreign institutions (Austria, Slovakia, and Romania) besides the initiator Europe Institute Budapest. The idea was supported by the then Foreign Minister Mr Ferenc Somogyi, who kindly accepted to give the first talk at the opening conference. Between November 2005 and October 2006 we held conferences (altogether six) on the following issues: What human rights conflicts would be strengthened in the Union by the accession of the Balkan region and the gradual admission of its states into the European Union? How could the European spatial integration programmes (the INTERREGs) promote the integration of the Balkan region into the Central-East European systems of production and transport? What prospects Hungary and the states of the Carpathian basin have at the building of the new European transport corridors? What role the Danube may play as a European transport corridor (the seventh) and the Carpathian basin in general in the water management of South-Eastern Europe? What common problems may be caused by the intercontinental changes of climate in the Carpathian basin and in the Balkan region? Into what new world economic environment would the Balkan region be included and what kind of opportunities open up for Hungary during the enlargement of the EU? Would the Balkan states and those of the Carpathian basin be competitors or regions of co-operation in food production?
Now the readers may receive the edited variant of the presentations of these conferences, and they are recommended to click on homepage www.balkancenter.hu that publishes our current news of the Balkans as a result of the work of the editorial office under the management of József Juhász and Andrea Antal.
We are glad to see that our modest initiative has been only one of those actions that encourage state policy since our accession to the EU in 2004 to develop a more marked concept of foreign policy. Moreover, they are challenging even the foreign political preferences of the previous years. (Such comprehensive and critical analyses can be read in the volume of papers entitled “Hungarian Foreign Policy in the 20th Century”, and our readers’ attention is called to this publication, especially to papers criticising the present situation by László Kiss J., Péter Tálas, László Póti, and Zsuzsa Szilágyi discussing our Balkan policy. The volume was edited by Ferenc Gazdag and László J. Kiss.)
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We are of the view that every institution and every individual should perform ’his own task’ with whatever modest means are at his/her disposal. How would the result of our effort manifest itself is unknown. But we have already met a professor of noble thinking “enriched by his intelligence” who has deposited a sum not insignificant even in international dimensions for the study of the Danube valley and the gateway to the Balkans. He is one of the founders of the Europe Institute who has advanced finances for several years for the expenses of our location in the university. And we have won assistance at the strategic tender of the HAS for our homepage and conferences, for the edition of our publications, and we were invited to report on the aims of the Balkan Project and its public benefit at the Prime Minister’s Office to the invited guests of governmental administration.
Meanwhile we are not only grumbling, not only simply criticising, but are making recommendations. We wish to promote thinking about our place in the world, in Europe and in Central-Eastern Europe.
December 2006.
Ferenc Glatz
Begegnungen27_Erdosi
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 27:121–133.
FERENC ERDŐSI
The Direction of Development in Trans-European Traffic Axes and its Impact on the Spatial Structure of the Balkans
The Transport Geographical Situation, Position and Conditions for Crossing the Balkans
The Balkan region constitutes a periphery of geography, economy and traffic (Figure 1), but at the same time it is also an intercontinental, Oriental link.
Crossing the Balkans today depends on the serviceability of international transport corridors affected by the configuration of terrain and political circumstances. The majority of the region is not ’transport friendly’ due to the unfavourable relief of the terrain. The situation is aggravated by socio-economic backwardness, regional interests and the multitude of conflicts. As a result, the majority of the region is characterised by poor transport conditions.
In WWII the opposing sides assessed the unfavourable topographic conditions of the Balkans that was of secondary significance as a front differently from the angle of armoured military operations. Guderian, the German General, wrote: “Compared to the scale of the military operations in which we engaged we did not suffer greater losses in any other fronts in terms of armoured divisions and tanks than we did in the scarcely passable Balkans.”
Churchill, however, held that, “If Hannibal could cross the Alps with elephants the Balkans cannot pose an obstacle for our Shermans.”
The Historical Role of the Balkans in European Traffic
The following constitutes the possible functions which the Balkans may fulfil within the European traffic network system:
– A hub: can obtain an insignificant role, important neither in terms of land nor air transport
– A gateway: can obtain a tertiary role; the North Sea Range megaports, i.e. Le Havre – Antwerp – Rotterdam and Amsterdam – Bremen – Hamburg, have an overwhelming advantage over the limited hinterland and region of gravity of, for example, Rijeka/Koper, Thessalonica, Constanţa
– A transit area: of major importance within a Europe – Asia Minor / Near East context, but essentially confined to just one single corridor running north-west to south-east linked to the secondary corridors joining the Carpathian Basin running in a north – south and north-east – south-west direction.
This transit role is of political, military and economic importance.
External power- and economic interests have exerted a decisive influence on this historical transit role. Under the Roman Empire the east–west axis (Via Appia-Adria), the so-called ’Via Egnatia’, was formed across the Southern Balkans. In the 16th–17th centuries, under the Ottoman Empire, the Istanbul–Niš–Belgrade war path ran across the Balkan area towards the Carpathian Basin; in contrast to which, in the final third of the 19th century, the Thessalonica–Kosovska Mitrovica (Sarajevo) railway line towards Bosnia, then the westernmost Ottoman province fulfilled the role of a supply line for reinforcements and maintaining power, although its entire length was not completed. The British and the Germans tended towards concepts of a trans-Eurasian railway, in line with the Porte plans. From a geo-strategic perspective the Eastern Balkans took on increasing relevance rather for the Germans though with their later Drang nach Osten (eastward expansion) policy and the Baghdad railway.
The Suez Canal played an orienting role, for the British were interested in the gateway of Thessalonica
Following the Congress of Berlin the Belgrade–Niš–Sofia–Istanbul and Niš–Skopje–Thessalonica railway line was constructed (Figure 2).
A direct rail link with the inner, Southern Slavic Balkan region would have been a key requirement for the realisation of Russia’s pan-Slavic policy, but prior to WWI no economic funds were available for such purposes.
Within the (synthetic state) of inter-war Yugoslavia the north-west – south-east international transit axis assumed a role in strengthening domestic cohesion. The years between 1940 and 1950 were characterised by strong political divisiveness and this transit function ceased. In the 1970s, the ’benign dictatorships’, at the instigation of Poland and Hungary, created the north – south trans-European Motorway Plan (TEM), part of which was conceived as the construction of Yugoslav clearways (Figure 3).
The TEN/PEN/TINA Networks
as the Main Pillars of Community Policy
1. Europe’s modern-day transport network was shaped under the influence of national interests, endeavours of separation as a thrown-together aggregate country network in which the interests of Europe as a whole did not prevail and which was characterised by the lack of inter-operability and compatibility.
2. The European Community, and European Union are characterised by the contradiction between a unified market demanding an interoperable infrastructural system and traffic system which is not harmonised.
Conditions for crossing and interoperability, both aspects of cohesion policy; sustainability which demands a high-standard, modern energy and environment policy; and a more balanced regional growth, as part of the regional policy, have all become necessary in the interests of making Europe more effective and more competitive within the global market.
A linear, sustainable, environment friendly infrastructural system is required in order to create a more competitive, coherent and balanced Europe.
3. The Trans-European Networks (TEN), the development of a linear infrastructure for an integrated system of routes (national trunk route networks) on a European scale. The principal considerations for development are that it should take place within a technologically and operationally unified system; be in compliance with guiding principles of subsidiarity; it should concentrate on the corridors connecting countries and capital cities; and should give preference to high performance, environment friendly means of transport, such as electrified railways, sea and inland water navigation.
4. Pan-European Networks (PEN) and TINA networks in the eastern half of Europe (1994: 9 Crete corridors; 1997: 10 Helsinki primary corridors and a number of subsidiary corridors). Following the cessation of hostilities in the Balkan war, the network was completed with the north-west – south-east, in addition to the north–south X and Vc corridors cutting across the Balkans.
Among the ten corridors, four primary corridors, namely V, IV, IX and X, (and a number of subsidiary corridors) start far away and end at Balkan seaports; the lower stretch of the Danube as an inland water navigation axis creates a link with the Black Sea – all of which promote dependence on Western and Central Europe. There is only one single South Balkan corridor that starts and ends within the Balkans (Figure 4).
An overwhelming majority of the corridors radiate from Budapest and extend into the Balkans – the road from South-Eastern Europe leading to Western Europe both figuratively and literally crosses the Carpathian Basin, i.e. Hungary. The radial corridors then subdivide further within the Balkans, and from another direction over Eastern Europe and Austria, linking up to create hubs in the Balkan capital cities, those of less significance linking up in certain larger economic centres.
It is the task of the affected countries to finance the TEN, with the EU only accounting for between 2–4% of non-member countries’ costs. New Member States can count in total on between 40–60% support from the Cohesion Fund, and occasionally from the Structural Fund; the emphasis is, however, placed on private investors in private public partnership (PPP) financing constructions. The total sum of the corridor investment may not exceed 1.5% of the GDP of the given country.
According to their respective status the PEN corridors are theoretically equal; it is, however, planned that a disproportionately large 30% share of the TEN-budget will be spent on the single corridor IV, running between Berlin and Istanbul, alone. The reason given for this is that from the European Union perspective this is of extraordinary geopolitical significance, fulfilling an exceptionally important role in linking regions carrying strategically important traffic:
– Connecting the NATO/EU area with the geographically isolated NATO member Turkey and NATO/EU member Greece;
– Leading towards the European point of departure for the trans-Eurasian ’New Silk Route’;
– Creating a connection between Germany and Turkey, the latter being of overriding importance in supplying the former with labour.
Corridor IX, starting from Helsinki, crossing Russia, and Ukraine and Moldova to reach Romania, is most burdened with problems. Apparently the Vc corridor, running between Budapest and Ploče, has also ’found itself in the shade’ because, in contrast to earlier intentions, it does not fulfil the role of an ’umbilical cord’ for Bosnia-Herzegovina, linking it to Western Europe.
Sluggishness in the Development of the Corridors and Strategic Alternatives Inherent in the Networks Created
Plans appearing as priority projects on the 2003 list (Quick Start Project) of TEN-T projects involving the Balkans are merely segments which do not form a continuous, coherent network. These are:
– The Igoumenitsa–Thessalonica–Istanbul/Patras–Athens–Sofia–Budapest–Bucharest–Constanţa motorway (deadline for completion end of 2007);
– The Athens–Sofia (Budapest–Vienna–Prague–Nuremberg–Dresden) railway axis;
– The ’sea highways’, i.e. sea shipping lines carrying trucks (without offering defined services);
– Substantially improved navigability of the Danube, mostly by ’channel dredging’.
According to PEN documents, the full length of the railways should be electrified and made capable of bearing large axis pressure and for the most part should be developed into two-line tracks, while the main trunk roads have to be developed into clearways (predominantly motorways) by 2010. Great differences currently exist in the level of development (relatively speaking, the best developed is Xa/Xb as well as the final stretch of IVa, but as yet there is hardly anything to see of corridors VIII and IX) and all in all the degree of completion that the Balkan corridor network currently enjoys stands at no more than 30–40%. It is more than doubtful whether they will be completed in time.
Significant differences can be evidenced between the practice of the Balkan countries and the EU directives on traffic policy with regard to the scale of railway and motorway development. The European Union, paying great attention to environmental aspects, gives priority to the development of electrified railways and waterways, while in light of the extremely backward road network in comparison to Western Europe, and the resultant economic losses, the countries of South-Eastern Europe have concentrated on the construction of motorways and clearways, and essentially link the larger scale railway developments to gaining access to Union resources. While among the corridors themselves the greatest shortfall is precisely in the technical standard of the railways, they are building motorways which do not belong to the corridors (for example, the Northern Transylvanian motorway or the Dalmatian coastal railway all the way down to Greece).
The Balkan network is being built within a structure that the inherent strategic alternatives should in any case ensure a transport connection with the EU core regions. In peace time, connections would ideally be maintained and accessed by means of the Central and Northern Balkans, the Carpathian Basin and corridors running south–north, as well as south-east and north-west. The extremely expensive, high-speed railway construction in Greece should fit into this version (Figure 5). This, for the time being, is an anachronistic investment, since its continuation across the Southern Slavic regions and Hungary to the existing German network will demand an incalculable amount of time and until then, in isolation, can only serve domestic traffic. In troubled times, and in times leading up to military operations, the corridors running east–west by-passing the Southern Slavic region (Figure 6), and capable of carrying traffic to Western Europe across Italy in the south and Hungary in the north, gain a greater significance. (During the years of civil war in the 1990s, the traffic of goods between Turkey and Greece, and Western Europe could be managed mostly by means of the insertion of ferry boats between ports in Western Greece and ports in Southern Italy or the Northern Adriatic. Today, the traffic has, for the most part, again reverted to the Vardar-Morava mainland corridor but shipment combined with sea transport still remains significant.)
The effects of Corridors on Spatial and Settlement
Development and Spatial Structure
The effects of corridors on spatial and settlement development are contradictory. To a great extent they improve the conditions (in terms of capacity, quality and speed) of long-distance international traffic between capital cities, while attracting business concerns, i.e. farming, commercial and logistics enterprises, and premises, and ultimately capital and a qualified, young workforce. This is how strips or zones of land, excelling in GDP production, emerge, together with contact zones beside motorways as well as high-energy centres at intersection points of existing corridors that provide outstanding performance. At the same time, over long distances the corridors with their prevalent draining effect accelerate the emptying and dumping of the outlying peripheral rural areas, with the end result of enhancing regional differences. The differentiation processes to which these reasons may be traced back even in Western Europe worked against a regional policy striving for harmonious growth. This could, however, cause much greater tension in the Balkans, underdeveloped in every respect, lacking as they do integral civilian growth where venture capitalism and the accompanying law of “dog eat dog” serve to create extreme social relations at all regional levels. The ’tunnel’ effect is only reinforced by the fact that the infrastructural development is practically exhausted within the context of the construction of the corridors (principally motorways), and the secondary roads can hardly gain access to the resources necessary for their maintenance and repair. The fable of Menenius Agrippa already makes reference to the indispensability of functional harmony between the limbs and the trunk with the stomach inside. To place this classical anecdote in a transport policy context, trunk road traffic originates chiefly from subsidiary roads, and if the feeding system dries up the system it feeds will likewise waste away. Therefore, in the future, a development policy is required which places great emphasis on the construction of a modern subsidiary road and also a partly subsidiary railway network, in addition to implementing measures to slow the growing volume of long-distance traffic, such as strengthening the local economy and society, and to base on local sources.
By reason of the differences in density of network, in addition to the differences in the intensity of traffic and in the significance of connections thereby created, the construction of the corridors influences to varying extent the economic growth and demographic conditions of the larger regions. The most extensive regions lying away from the corridors are the Croatian, Bosnian and Serbian highland regions of the Western and Central Balkans, as well as Transylvania. All indications point to the fact that – under peaceful conditions – the most dynamic corridor will be the one running north-west – south-east which today already strings together the relatively most developed capital city agglomerations of Ljubljana, Zagreb, Belgrade, Sofia and Istanbul. Though the intensity of traffic (in annual average) of the twin corridors V and Vb to the north-east and terminating at the Northern Adriatic ports lag behind only to an extent not reaching scale, due to their short length their effect may only be asserted over comparatively small areas.
The fundamental characteristics of the Balkan regional structure were shaped several centuries earlier and as such the corridor network for a good time to come will not be capable of changing them; then again, as time passes, when the other corridors have been built and intra-Balkan economic and cultural relations, as well as those enjoyed with the Eastern Slavic countries will be much stronger than those of today, the corridor network will become functionally more balanced. The principal beneficiaries of the network’s completion may be Bosnia-Herzegovina, Romania and Bulgaria.
Today the stretch of corridor Vc (leading to Ploče in Croatia via Osijek and Sarajevo) between the Drava and the sea has not been built at all. In Helsinki this corridor was included into the PEN network with the intention of creating a connection with Western Europe across Hungary for the isolated Bosnia-Herzegovina. According to experience, however, the several hundred thousand guest workers, and their twice as many family members, employed in German-speaking countries, not to mention Bosnian-Herzegovinian travellers visiting Western Europe regularly for business or other purposes, travel rather in a north-western direction via Zagreb and Ljubljana than through Hungary. If, however, Hungary acquired a leading position not simply in terms of economic power but rather as one of the most important logistics centres in East Central Europe then the Vc could fulfil its intended role.
Competition among the Ports at Corridor Terminations
Just as competition among the Adriatic ports is fierce with so much at stake regarding the attraction of the southbound corridors (the Montenegrin port of Bar having also joined, though with little chance, by the railway line heading from Belgrade), so there is also much at stake among the Black Sea ports regarding the first corridor to be built, and moreover which will then serve as the European point of departure and gateway for the trans-Eurasian 'New Silk Route’. (Lajos Kossuth, albeit more than a century and a half ago, adopted the slogan, “Hungarians, to the sea!” – the choice of location finally being settled only after a fairly fierce debate when Fiume won over Constanţa. Nonetheless, even in the first years of the 21st century the poor transmission capacity of the Croatian railways and the shortcomings of the port of Fiume/Rijeka have forced Hungarian commerce to utilise distant Constanţa to a greater extent than necessarily desired to gain access to the world market.) Constanţa, as opposed to the Bulgarian ports, has the greatest chance to establish itself as the trans-Eurasian European gateway. This variant would result for Hungary in that our No. 9 transversal high-speed road running towards Western Transdanubia via Szekszárd and Kaposvár, connecting with corridor IVa from Constanţa via Bucharest to Szeged could in the future become part of the intercontinental corridor up to Western Europe and to the Iberian peninsula (Figure 6) – hence “Hungary needs Constanţa”.
The traffic value of the ports at the end of corridors has been differentiated thus far primarily in terms of their economic and traffic geography situations; i.e. the state of economic development of their respective hinterlands (and as such the volume of foreign commercial sea-borne traffic they are capable of generating); their respective distance from the largest areas capable of generating trade and turnover, and the means of mainland transport by which they are connected. In the Northern Adriatic ports and the highly developed Alpine areas which are closer to the dynamic economy of the western region of the Carpathian Basin and the Czech Republic the proportion of valuable container and international transit goods is much higher than in the Black Sea ports predominantly loading mass-produced goods. However, in the future, inland sea ports have to reckon with a comparative loss in value for at least two reasons.
One reason is the globalisation and transformation in the extensive logistics systems employed in long-distance sea trade to serve in ever growing proportions the dumping of Chinese goods (round the world, hub and spoke), as a consequence of which the open-sea Southern Italian, Southern Greek (Crete) and Maltese trans-shipment hub ports are obtaining a greater importance given their proximity to the shortest water route between the Suez Canal and the Straits of Gibraltar.
The second factor is the problem of navigating through the Bosphorus. Although this sea strait, together with the Dardanelles, constitutes an international waterway (the multilateral agreement concluded in Montreux in 1936 ensures, in peace time, the free passage of both commercial and naval ships irrespective of their country of origin), Turkey’s 10 million inhabitants of the Istanbul agglomeration have, amid environmental protection concerns, already banned the night traffic of large oil tankers. As a result traffic has become too heavy, slowing down daytime shipping to the extent that the resultant congestion on the Bosphorus has left ships on many occasions having to wait to gain entry. The oil industry in the Caucasus and Caspian environs, which is increasingly in the hands of American companies, has reacted to this by skirting the Turkish sea straits by means of pipelines (Figure 7) (Baku–Ceyhan; Burgas–Vlorë; Burgas–Alexandropoulis; Kiyiköy–Ganos).
Begegnungen26_Suppan
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 26:21–29.
ARNOLD SUPPAN
Neueste Forschungen zum Österreichischen Staatsvertrag
Die Historische Kommission der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften veranstaltete zwischen 8. und 11. Mai 2005 eine Internationale Konferenz unter dem Titel „Der österreichische Staatsvertrag zwischen internationaler Strategie und nationaler Identität”. Historiker, Völkerrechtler, Politikwissenschaftler und Diplomaten aus mehr als einem Dutzend Länder beschäftigten sich mit dem Staatsvertrag und der österreichischen Neutralität im Kontext der internationalen Politik, mit „The Cold War, the Eastern Bloc and the Austrian State Treaty”, mit „The West and the Austrian State Treaty”, mit Österreich als Referenzfall oder Vorbild, mit der Frage des Deutschen Eigentums und den deutsch-österreichischen Beziehungen, mit völkerrechtlichen Fragen nach dem Staatsvertrag, mit Entschädigungs- und Restitutionsfragen, mit der Frage der Rückführung der Kriegsgefangenen und mit den Zusammenhängen zwischen Staatsvertrag – österreichischer Identität – europäischer Integration. Es sei mir gestattet, vor allem an Hand der grundlegenden Arbeiten des Doyens der österreichischen Staatsvertragsforschung, Gerald Stourzh, der 2005 sein monumentales Werk „Um Einheit und Freiheit” in fünfter Auflage vorlegte1, einige wichtige neuere und neueste Forschungsergebnisse zu präsentieren:
1. Obwohl die Alliierten in der Moskauer Deklaration vom 30. Oktober 1943 die Wiederherstellung eines freien und unabhängigen Österreich zugesagt hatten, wurde Österreich – offensichtlich infolge seiner „Teilnahme am Kriege an der Seite Hitler-Deutschlands” und seines geringen Beitrages an seiner „Befreiung” – eher wie ein Feindstaat behandelt. Dies erkennt man vor allem an der Einrichtung eines Alliierten Rates und einer Alliierten Kommission, an der Aufteilung Österreichs in vier Besatzungszonen, an der Demilitarisierung Österreichs, an den Demontagen in der sowjetischen (und teilweise auch französischen) Besatzungszone und an der sofortigen Absetzung aller NS-Funktionsträger. Natürlich hatte nicht der Staat Österreich am Krieg teilgenommen, aber zweifellos größere Teile der österreichischen Bevölkerung: 1,3 Millionen Soldaten mit über 200 Generälen in der Wehrmacht, 70.000 SS-Männer und eine Reihe Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer, ein Dutzend Reichsstatthalter und Gauleiter, Hunderte Gestapo-Leiter und KZ-Kommandanten, Hunderte Kreisleiter und Ortsgruppenleiter, Hunderte Direktoren von kriegswichtigen Betrieben, sowie über 500.000 NSDAP-Mitglieder. Freilich waren auch die österreichischen Verluste überdimensional: 250.000 Gefallene, 117.000 Schwerverwundete, 76.000 Vermisste, 65.000 ermordete Juden, 30.000 „Euthanasie”-Opfer, 24.300 Ziviltote, 9.000 ermordete Roma, 2.700 hingerichtete Widerstandskämpfer. Der Einmarsch der alliierten Truppen in Österreich im April und Mai 1945 – im Raum Wien und in der Oststeiermark gab es noch schwere Kämpfe – wurde von größeren Teilen der österreichischen Bevölkerung als Befreiung vom Krieg und vom Nationalsozialismus aufgefasst; große Teile der Kärntner Bevölkerung betrachteten etwa den Einmarsch britischer Truppen als Schutz vor den ebenfalls einmarschierten jugoslawischen Partisanen, die sich jedoch auf britischem und amerikanischem Druck nach 14 Tagen zurückziehen mussten.2
2. Erstaunlich schnell gestatteten die Alliierten – Mitte April 1945 zwar nur die Sowjetunion3, ab Sommer 1945 aber auch die Westalliierten – die Bildung einer provisorischen Regierung unter Führung des alten Sozialdemokraten Karl Renner, was die rasche Einrichtung alter/neuer österreichischer Institutionen ermöglichte: einer Verfassung, von neun Landesregierungen, von Bürgermeistern, dreier Parteien (ÖVP, SPÖ und KPO), einer Einheitsgewerkschaft, etc. Freilich bestanden die Alliierten im Jahre 1945 auf konsequenter Durchführung der „Entnazifizierung”, d.h. der „Säuberung” der öffentlichen Verwaltung und Wirtschaft von ehemaligen Nationalsozialisten (was kurzfristig zu einem Elitenaustausch führte), sowie auf Entzug des Wahlrechts für die mehr als eine halbe Million NSDAP-Mitglieder. Nach dem überraschenden Wahlerfolg der bürgerlich-bäuerlichen ÖVP (mit 49,8 % aller Stimmen und 85 von 165 Mandaten) und der sozialdemokratischen SPÖ (mit 44,6 % und 76 Mandaten) am 25. November 1945, wusste die schwer geschlagene KPÖ (mit 5,4 % und 4 Mandaten) keinen Rat und „vergaß” in ihren Berichten nach Moskau4 sogar auf die wichtigsten Ursachen hinzuweisen: 63 % der Wahlberechtigten waren Frauen gewesen (in Wien sogar 68 %), die weder Raub, Plünderung und Vergewaltigung seitens der Roten Armee vergessen hatten, noch ihre kriegsgefangenen Männer, Söhne und Väter. Die sowjetische Besatzungsmacht betrachtete sich jedenfalls nach dem November 1945 als im „feindlichen Ausland” befindlich, akzeptierte aber die neue Drei-Parteien-Koalitionsregierung unter Bundeskanzler Leopold Figl (ÖVP). Aus 137.000 Verfahren vor den österreichischen „Volksgerichten” wurden 23.500 Personen vor Gericht gestellt und 13.600 verurteilt, davon 43 zum Tode. Bis 1947 verlief die Entnazifizierung mit einer gewissen Härte – so wurden kurzfristig 100.000 Personen aus dem öffentlichen Dienst entlassen –, danach aber begann das Werben der beiden Großparteien um die „Ehemaligen”. Die nach dem NS-Gesetz von 1947 „Minderbelasteten” wurden bei den Nationalratswahlen 1949 wieder zugelassen und wählten zum Teil den neuen „Verband der Unabhängigen”, zum Teil aber die Großparteien ÖVP und SPÖ. Der KPÖ, die 1947 aus der Koalition ausgetreten war, brachte die Koalition mit den Linkssozialisten – trotz heftiger Propaganda gegen die amerikanische Marshall-Plan-Hilfe – nur den Gewinn eines Mandats.5
3. Die Demarkationslinie zwischen der sowjetischen Besatzungszone in Niederösterreich, dem Burgenland, dem oberösterreichischen Mühlviertel, sowie in mehreren Wiener Bezirken (2., 4., 10., 20., 21. und 22.) einerseits und den drei Westzonen andererseits – die in Oberösterreich entlang der Donau, zwischen Ober- und Niederösterreich entlang der Enns, zwischen Niederösterreich und der Steiermark entlang des Alpenhauptkammes und über den Semmering, sowie zwischen der Steiermark und dem Burgenland entlang der Lafnitz verlief – bedeutete eine militärische Grenze zwischen Ost und West, die bis 1953 für Österreicher nur nach strenger Kontrolle passierbar war. Als freilich der Vorsitzende und der Sekretär der KPÖ, Johann Koplenig und Friedl Fürnberg, am 13. Februar 1948 in Moskau dem Politbüromitglied Andrej A. Zhdanow vorschlugen, ihre Taktik darauf aufzubauen, dass die sowjetischen Truppen noch länger auf dem Territorium Österreichs bleiben sollten, wurde ihnen deutlich gesagt, dass das Zentralkomitee der KPdSU damit nicht einverstanden sei. Und auch der Vorschlag der österreichischen Genossen, eine Teilung Österreichs anzustreben, erhielt eine klare Abfuhr. Zhdanow machte unmissverständlich klar, „dass der Schwerpunkt des Kampfes der KP[Ö] für die Unabhängigkeit und Souveränität ihres Landes auf die Entfesselung der inneren nationaldemokratischen Kräfte in jedem Land gegründet werden muss”.6 – Auch der Oktoberstreik 1950 wurde offensichtlich nicht von Moskau aus angestiftet, sondern stellte eine größere Streikbewegung gegen das 4. Lohn-Preis-Abkommen zwischen Regierung und dem Österreichischen Gewerkschaftsbund (ÖGB) vom 22. September 1950 dar, die im sowjetischen Sektor in Wien begann und von der KPÖ in Richtung eines Generalstreiks auszunützen versucht wurde. Trotz Ausgreifens des Streiks auf Niederösterreich, Oberösterreich und die Steiermark gelang es der Regierung und dem ÖGB mit erfolgreicher Gegenpropaganda – und teilweise auch mit Brachialgewalt – die Streikbewegung einzudämmen.7
4. Am 20. Juni 1949 beschloss die sechste Session der alliierten Außenminister in Paris, Österreich die Grenzen vom 1. Jänner 1938 zu belassen. Damit waren österreichische Spekulationen auf Südtirol – die bereits durch den Friedensvertrag mit Italien 1947 erledigt worden waren – oder das Berchtesgadener Land ebenso obsolet wie jugoslawische Gebietsforderungen in Unterkärnten und in der südlichen Steiermark. Im Frühjahr 1947 schienen diese Forderungen noch ernsthaft von der Sowjetunion unterstützt worden zu sein, aber Außenminister Wjatscheslaw M. Molotow hatte seinem jugoslawischen Kollegen Edvard Kardelj bereits im April 1947 in Moskau nahe gelegt, seine Forderungen deutlich zu reduzieren, worauf sich die jugoslawische Seite bis auf die Minimalforderung nach den beiden während des Krieges gebauten Draukraftwerke Schwabegg und Lavamünd zurückzog. Nach dem Bruch zwischen Stalin und Tito gestand Moskau auch dies nicht mehr zu, und Jugoslawien musste sich mit dem Recht begnügen, „von österreichischem Eigentum, Rechten und Interessen auf jugoslawischem Gebiet Besitz zu ergreifen, sie zurückzuhalten oder sie zu liquidieren”. Immerhin waren dies 24.000 Hektar Grundbesitz, Hotels, Villen und Häuser (auch im ehemals italienischen Gebiet des Küstenlandes), Industrie- und Gewerbebetriebe, Arztpraxen und Anwaltskanzleien, Patente und Autorenrechte, ein Schiffs- und Fuhrpark, sowie 4 Millionen Vorkiegsdollar an Einlagen der österreichischen Nationalbank bei der Nationalbank des Königreiches Jugoslawien. Schließlich sollte Österreich im Staatsvertrag seinen slowenischen und kroatischen Minderheiten entsprechenden Schutz gewähren. – Nach Protesten der jugoslawischen Politik und der Medien im Jahre 1949 setzte 1950 eine völlige Haltungsänderung in Belgrad ein. Wirtschafts- und sicherheitspolitische Gründe veranlassten die jugoslawische Führung, eine Annäherung an Österreich zu suchen und den Abschluss des Staatsvertrages zu fördern. So benötigte etwa Jugoslawien dringend österreichische Traktoren, um seine nach Vertreibung der Deutschen, Magyaren und Italiener heruntergekommene Landwirtschaft zu modernisieren. Und Marschall Tito war sehr an einem raschen Abzug der Roten Armee aus Österreich und einer künftigen Neutralität Österreichs gelegen, um im mittleren Europa eine blockfreie Zone zu schaffen.8
5. Das Hauptziel der österreichischen Bemühungen um die Erlangung des Staatsvertrags war das Ende der Vier-Mächte-Kontrolle und der Rückzug der Besatzungstruppen aus Österreich, und zwar insbesondere der Rückzug der sowjetischen Streitkräfte. Die „Alliierten” des Zweiten Weltkrieges waren ja spätestens seit 1948 keine Alliierten mehr, auch wenn sie im „Alliierten Rat” in Wien weiterhin einigermaßen korrekt miteinander arbeiteten. De facto waren die alliierten Truppen aber Besatzungstruppen zweier einander feindselig gegenüberstehenden Machtblöcke geworden, die im Kriegsfall auch Österreich zu einem Schlachtfeld gemacht hätten.9 Daher ist es militärstategisch angebracht, von der Ost-West-Besetzung Österreichs zu sprechen. Infolge der „Militarisierung” des Kalten Krieges seit Beginn des Korea-Krieges hatte etwa die NATO bereits 1952 mit der Registrierung von etwa 90- bis 100.000 wehrfähigen Österreichern in den westlichen Besatzungszonen begonnen, die im Falle eines sowjetischen Angriffs die Alpenpässe in Salzburg, Tirol und Westkärnten hätten verteidigen sollen. Mit der ab 1954 erfolgten Hinwendung der NATO zum Einsatz taktischer Atomwaffen hätte aber der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Österreich die Verwandlung in ein nukleares Schlachtfeld gedroht. Ausgerechnet fünf Tage nach dem Abschluss des Staatsvertrages sagte der italienische Verteidigungsminister Taviani zu einem britischen Diplomaten, im Falle eines sowjetischen Angriffs durch Österreich „würden wir natürlich Wien verlieren, aber wir könnten die Bergprovinzen retten, indem wir die Täler mit Atombomben blockieren”.10
6. Die sowjetische Besatzungsmacht hatte sich in Ostösterreich ein Wirtschaftsimperium aus über 450 Industrie- und Gewerbebetrieben aufgebaut, das sie auf Grund des Potsdamer Abkommens 1945 unter dem Titel „Deutsche Vermögenswerte im Ausland” als ihr Eigentum beanspruchte und nutzte. Diese USIA-Betriebe (= Verwaltung des sowjetischen Vermögens im Ausland) sollten im Staatsvertrag um den Preis von 150 Millionen US-Dollar abgelöst werden, einen Betrag, den sich Österreich etwa 1949 noch gar nicht hätte leisten können – oder nur mit amerikanischer Hilfe. Ausgenommen von einer solchen Ablöse sollten – nach sowjetischen Vorstellungen – die Komplexe der Donau-Dampfschifffahrtsgesellschaft (DDSG) und um das österreichische Erdöl bleiben. So sollten alle Werte der DDSG in Ungarn, Rumänien und Bulgarien und im östlichen Österreich, einschließlich aller Landeplätze, Teile des Wiener Hafens, der Schiffswerft Korneuburg auf Dauer im Eigentum der Sowjetunion verbleiben. Im Erdölkomplex sollte die Sowjetunion das Recht erhalten, bis zu dreißig Jahre nach Abschluss des Staatsvertrages die Ölfelder im Ausmaß von 60 % der Förderung von 1947 auszubeuten, für die Dauer von acht Jahren Konzessionen auf 60 % aller Schürfrechte in Ostösterreich wahrzunehmen, für weitere 25 Jahre ab Fündigwerden daraus Öl zu gewinnen, Ölraffinerien mit einer Jahreskapazität von 420.000 Tonnen Rohöl zu betreiben und neun Unternehmen, die mit der Verteilung von Ölprodukten befasst waren, zu übernehmen. Wenn wir vom Jahre 1955 ausgehen, wäre also die sowjetische Ölförderung in Österreich bis 1988 möglich gewesen, also praktisch bis zum Ende des Sowjetimperiums.11
7. Nach einer Politbüroweisung vom Oktober 1949 ließ Stalin die im Jänner 1947 begonnenen Staatsvertragsverhandlungen jahrelang blockieren – teilweise sogar mit dem Hinweis auf die offene Triest-Frage. Erst im Frühjahr 1953 ergaben sich neue Perspektiven: In den U.S.A. war General Eisenhower neuer Präsident geworden, in Moskau war Stalin gestorben und in Wien löste – nach einer Wahlniederlage der ÖVP – der Wirtschaftsbündler Julius Raab den Bauernbündler Leopold Figl als neuen Bundeskanzler ab. Bereits in Gesprächen zwischen sowjetischen und österreichischen Diplomaten im Herbst 1952 war deutlich geworden, dass die Sowjetunion Ostösterreich sicher nicht aus der Hand geben würde, solange das Risiko eines NATO-Beitritts Österreichs bestand. Außenminister Karl Gruber, der von den Sowjets als US-Spion und „ärgster Feind” betrachtet wurde, proklamierte noch vor seinem Rücktritt im Herbst 1953 im Hauptausschuss des Nationalrates, dass die Politik Österreichs „frei von militärischen Blöcken" sei.12 Raab, von seinem Bruder als Hochschullehrer in St. Gallen laufend informiert, konnte sich unter „Neutralität” nach dem Vorbild der Schweiz eindeutig mehr vorstellen als der sozialdemokratische Vizekanzler Adolf Schärf. Die sozialistischen Bedenken gegen den Begriff Neutralität hatten überwiegend mit der kommunistischen Neutralitäts-Propaganda zu tun, aber auch mit der Sorge, dadurch von den Westmächten abgekoppelt zu werden. Doch Außenminister Molotov kam zur Berliner Außenministerkonferenz im Februar 1954 nicht nur mit dem neuen Vorschlag, die Neutralisierung Österreichs solle in einem neuen Artikel des Staatsvertrags verankert werden, sondern auch mit dem Verlangen nach weiterer Stationierung alliierter, insbesondere sowjetischer Truppen in Österreich auch nach Abschluss eines Staatsvertrags – bis zum Abschluss eines Friedensvertrags mit Deutschland. Außenminister Figl und Staatssekretär Kreisky konnten nur empört ablehnen. Immerhin hatte US-Außenminister John F. Dulles in einem Vier-Augen-Gespräch mit Molotow am 13. Februar 1954 deutlich gemacht: „Wenn Österreich eine Schweiz zu sein wünscht, werden die Vereinigten Staaten nicht im Wege stehen, aber dies sollte nicht auferlegt werden.”13
8. Der Rückschlag in den Staatsvertragsverhandlungen hatte weniger mit Österreich zu tun, als viel mehr mit der großen Politik. Moskau versuchte das Projekt einer Europäischen Verteidigungsgemeinschaft, in dem die Bundesrepublik Deutschland integriert sein sollte, ohne direkt Mitglied der NATO zu werden, zu torpedieren; und tatsächlich kam das Projekt auch im August 1954 in der Pariser Nationalversammlung zu Fall. Aber die Westmächte konstruierten ein neues Vertragssystem, und in den Pariser Verträgen vom Oktober 1954 wurde die direkte Mitgliedschaft der BRD in der NATO verankert. Moskau versuchte nun neuerlich – mit allen Mitteln der Diplomatie und Propaganda – den Ratifikationsprozess der Pariser Verträge zu verhindern oder zumindest zu verzögern. Neuerlich hoffte man auf die französischen Parlamentarier. Aber im März 1955 passierten die Pariser Verträge auch den französischen Rat der Republik, und die Bundesrepublik Deutschland wurde am 5. Mai 1955 Mitglied der NATO. Auch wenn die Österreichlösung wohl nicht als Modell für ein neutrales Gesamtdeutschland gedacht war, so hatte sich Moskau – und hier vor allem Malenkow und Molotow – die Österreichfrage offensichtlich doch bis zuletzt als Verhandlungsobjekt zurückbehalten wollen.14
9. Auch in Moskau gingen große Veränderungen vor sich. Nikita Chruschtschow, seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg Mitglied des Politbüros, wurde nach Stalins Tod Erster Sekretär der KPdSU und strebte neue außenpolitische Weichenstellungen an. Schon in einem Brief vom 22. Juni 1954 an Tito strebte er neue politische, wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Beziehungen zu Jugoslawien an.15 Zu Jahresbeginn 1955 vereinbarte Chruschtschow in Peking den Rückzug der sowjetischen Streitkräfte aus dem seit August 1945 besetzten Marinestützpunkt Port Arthur. Am 31. Jänner 1955 konnte Chruschtschow seinen Rivalen Georgij M. Malenkow – dem er u.a. eine falsche Strategie in der Deutschlandfrage vorhielt – durch seinen Vertrauensmann Marschall Nikolaj A. Bulganin als Ministerpräsidenten ersetzen. Am B. Februar 1955 musste Molotow – offensichtlich auf Drängen Chruschtschows, aber vorbereitet vom Außenministerium – neue sowjetische Initiativen in der Frage des Staatsvertrages mit Österreich und einer Aussöhnung mit Jugoslawien ankündigen, nicht ohne Tito-kritische Äußerungen von sich zu geben. Der jugoslawische Staatschef reagierte postwendend mit heftiger öffentlicher Kritik an Molotow. Umso erstaunlicher, dass am 11. März 1955 die Parteizeitung Prawda und die Regierungszeitung Izvestija diese Kritik veröffentlichten, was einer öffentlichen Desavouierung Molotows gleichkam.16 Im übrigen fuhren Chruschtschow mit Bulganin noch Ende Mai 1955 – allerdings ohne Molotow (!) – nach Belgrad. Hauptziel der sowjetischen Politik dürfte die Gewinnung Jugoslawiens als „Vorposten” des kommunistischen Lagers (forpost lagera) gewesen sein, d.h. die Aufwertung der militär-strategischen Bedeutung Jugoslawiens und der Versuch, Belgrad wieder dem Westen zu entfernen.17
10. Wie bereits angedeutet, arbeitete Molotovs Außenministerium zwischen Jänner und März 1955 eine Reihe von Entwürfen in der Österreich-Frage aus, die verschiedene Varianten enthielten, u.a. auch die Forderung nach einem Wiedereinmarschrecht der vier Signatarstaaten im Falle einer unmittelbaren Anschlussgefahr. Positiver war das Anknüpfen der sowjetischen Diplomaten an eine Äußerung des Bundespräsidenten Theodor Körner aus dem Jahre 1952 und an die Äußerung von Dulles in Berlin 1954, die beide eine Neutralität nach dem Modell der Schweiz, also eine freiwillig erklärte Neutralität, befürworteten. Bundeskanzler Raab erfuhr von dem ihm vertrauten österreichischen Botschafter in Moskau, Norbert Bischoff, dass „Neutralität” das Zauberwort für einen endgültigen Durchbruch werden könnte. Als die österreichische Regierungsdelegation mit Raab, Schärf, Figl und Kreisky am 24. März 1955 zu Verhandlungen nach Moskau eingeladen wurde, waren nicht nur die Österreicher, sondern auch Molotow und sein Team, sowie der sowjetische Außenhandelsminister Anastas Mikojan hervorragend vorbereitet. Tatsächlich bestand Molotow bei den Verhandlungen Mitte April auf die Aufnahme eines Passus über die Neutralität – „wie sie von der Schweiz gehandhabt wird” – in das erst einen Monat später veröffentlichte Moskauer Memorandum. Und Raab hatte einige Mühe, seinen sozialistischen Koalitionspartner Schärf zum Nachgeben zu bewegen. Umso mehr machte sich Schärf für die Rückgabe des gesamten Erdölkomplexes und die DDSG stark, und Raab konnte mit Mikojan tatsächlich eine relativ günstige Ablöse aushandeln. Stolz konnte der Bundeskanzler nach seiner Rückkehr aus Moskau auf dem Flugplatz von Bad Vöslau verkünden: „Österreich wird frei! „18
11. Freilich setzten erst die Westalliierten auf der Wiener Botschafterkonferenz zwischen 2. und 13. Mai 1955 die Verankerung der sowjetischen Wirtschaftskonzessionen im Staatsvertrag durch. Die Botschafterkonferenz regelte auch die Übertragung des seit den Potsdamer Beschlüssen im Eigentum der vier Mächte stehenden deutschen Vermögenswerte an Österreich und grenzte – gegen den scharfen Protest des deutschen Bundeskanzlers Konrad Adenauer – die Rückübertragung an deutsche Eigentümer auf das sogenannte „kleine deutsche Eigentum” unter 10.000 Dollar ein, bzw. auf Eigentum, das erzieherischen, kulturellen, karitativen und religiösen Zwecken diente. Die schwere deutsch-österreichische Krise konnte erst zwei Jahre später durch eine für die Bundesrepublik sehr günstige Auslegung des „kleinen” Eigentums beigelegt werden. – Die Kosten der Freiheit wurden jüngst von Hans Seidel berechnet: Der Rückkauf der 1955 bereits heruntergewirtschafteten USIA-Betriebe erwies sich als überzahlt, auch wenn die Zahlung von 150 Millionen Dollar in Warenlieferungen erfolgte. Der Rückkauf des Erdölkomplexes war hingegen relativ günstig, da die Erträge nach 1955 höher lagen, als die Schätzungen vorhersahen. Viel schwerer waren die Verluste Österreichs infolge der sowjetischen Erdölgewinnung bis 1955. Insgesamt dürfte Österreich die zehnjährige Besatzung etwa 1,5 Milliarden Dollar gekostet haben, ziemlich genau der Betrag den es andererseits aus der Marshallplan-Hilfe bezog.19
12. Das Anschlussverbot im Staatsvertrag wurde von allen Beteiligten begrüßt. Für die Sowjetunion war es gemeinsam mit der Bereitschaft zur österreichischen Neutralitätserklärung eine ausreichende Garantie, dass Österreich nicht der NATO beitreten werde. Für die Westalliierten war der Staatsvertrag eine ausreichende Garantie, dass sich im endgültig von Teilungsängsten befreiten Österreich eine westlich orientierte Demokratie durchsetzen werde. Die letzte Diskussion in der Außenministerkonferenz am Vortag der Staatsvertragsunterzeichnung bezog sich auf den sogenannten Verantwortlichkeitspassus in der Präambel, in dem es – schärfer als in der Moskauer Deklaration – hieß, „dass Österreich als integrierender Teil Hitler-Deutschlands am Kriege gegen die Alliierten und Assoziierten und gegen andere Vereinte Nationen teilnahm, und dass Deutschland sich zu diesem Zweck österreichischen Gebietes, österreichischer Truppen und materieller Hilfsquellen bediente, und dass Österreich eine Verantwortlichkeit, die sich aus dieser Teilnahme am Krieg ergibt, nicht vermeiden kann”. Außenminister Figl, der als KZ-Häftling in Dachau Ende August 1939 die Stimme Molotows im Radio gehört hatte, nachdem dieser den Hitler-Stalin-Pakt unterschrieben hatte, stellte nun sehr glaubwürdig den Antrag, diesen Verantwortlichkeitspassus fallen zu lassen, der einem „Schuldmal” gleichkomme; und die vier Außenminister der Großmächte – Molotow, Dulles, Macmillan und Pinay – gaben ihr Einverständnis. Dies mag mit dazu beigetragen zu haben, dass in Österreich die grundsätzliche Auseinandersetzung mit dem Nationalsozialismus lange hinausgeschoben wurde, und dass eine Reihe von Restitution- und Entschädigungsfragen erst von der Regierung Schüssel gelöst wurden.20
Ohne Zweifel gab der Staatsvertrag vom 15. Mai 1955 der Republik Österreich und seiner Bevölkerung die große Chance, ein modernes pluralistisch-demokratisches Staatswesen mit sozialer Marktwirtschaft und westlicher Wertevielfalt aufzubauen, das nun innere mit äußerer Freiheit verbinden konnte. Und Österreich hat diese Chance tatsächlich genützt.
Anmerkungen
1
Gerald STOURZH, Um Einheit und Freiheit. Staatsvertrag, Neutralität und das Ende der Ost-West-Besetzung Österreichs 1945-1955 (Wien – Köln – Graz 5. Aufl. 2005).
2
Manfried RAUCHENSTEINER, Stalinplatz 4. Österreich unter alliierter Besatzung (Wien 2005).
3
Weisung des stv. Außenministers Vladimír S. Semënov an Marschall Fädor 1. Tolbuchin, Moskau, 17. April 1945, in: Sowjetische Politik in Österreich 1945-1955. Dokumente aus russischen Archiven, hg. von Wolfgang MUELLER, Arnold SUPPAN, Norman M. NAIMARK und Gennadij BORDJUGOV (Wien 2005), Dok. Nr. 9.
4
Berichte von F. Hexmann, 8. Dezember 1945, sowie von J. Koplenig und F. Fürnberg an IV. Stalin, 18. Dezember 1945, in: Sowjetische Politik in Österreich, Dok. Nr. 24 und 25.
5
Ernst HANISCH, Der lange Schatten des Staates. Österreichische Gesellschaftsgeschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (Wien 1994) 420-425.
6
Protokoll des Gesprächs von A. A. Zdanov mit J. Koplenig und F. Fürnberg, Moskau, 13. Februar 1948, in: Sowjetische Politik in Österreich, Dok. Nr. 48; vgl. Wolfgang Mueller, Die sowjetische Besatzung in Österreich 1945–1955 und ihre politische Mission (Wien–Köln–Weimar 2005).
7
Weisungen des Politbüros des ZK der VKP(B), Moskau, 23. November 1950; Bericht der Propagandaabteilung der SCSK für Österreich über die Streikbewegung in Österreich, Wien, 16. Dezember 1950, in: Sowjetische Politik in Österreich, Dok. Nr. 71 und 72.
8
Arhiv Josipa Broza Tita (Beograd), I-2-a/9; vgl. Arnold SUPPAN, Jugoslawien und der Staatsvertrag, in: Der österreichische Staatsvertrag 1955. Internationaler Strategie, rechtliche Relevanz, nationaler Identität, hg. von Arnold Suppan, Gerald Stourzh und Wolfgang Mueller (Wien 2005) 431-471.
9
Günter BISCHOF, Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-55. The Leverage of the Weak (Basingstoke – New York 1999).
10
Gerald STOURZH, Der österreichische Staatsvertrag in den weltpolitischen Entscheidungsprozessen des Jahres 1955. Festvortrag in der Feierlichen Sitzung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften am 11. Mai 2005; zu den sowjetischen Planungen vgl. A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1991, ed. by Vojtech Mastny, Malcolm Byrne and Magdalena Klotzbach (Budapest – New York 2005).
11
STOURZH, Um Einheit und Freiheit, 414 ?, 774 f.; vgl. Hans SEIDEL, Österreichs Wirtschaft und Wirtschaftspolitik nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (Wien 2005) 421-458.
12
Vgl. Karl Gruber. Reden und Dokumente 1945-1953, hg. von Michael GEHLER (Wien – Köln – Graz 1994).
13
STOURZH, Der österreichische Staatsvertrag, 965-995.
14
Bruno THOSS, Modellfall Österreich? Der österreichische Staatsvertrag und die deutsche Frage 1954/55, in: Zwischen Kaltem Krieg und Entspannung, hg. von Bruno Thoss und Hans-Erich Volkmann (Boppard/Rhein 1988) 93-136; Alexei FILITOV, The Post-Stalin Succession Struggle and the Austrian State Treaty, in: Der österreichische Staatsvertrag, 121-143.
15
N. S. Chrugüev an J. B. Tito, Moskau, 22. Juni 1954, in: Arhiv Centralnog Komiteta Saveza Komunista Jugoslavije, IX, 6/I-133.
16
STOURZH, Um Einheit und Freiheit, 335-341; Vladislav ZUBOK – Constantine PLESHAKOV, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War. From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, Mass. 1996), 154-173.
17
Vgl. Arhiv Srbije i Cme Gore, fond br. 507/IX, fasc.br. 119/1: Tok konferencije jugoslovenske i sovjetske delegacije.
18
STOURZH, Um Einheit und Freiheit, 366-449, 487.
19
Matthias PAPE, Ungleiche Brüder. Österreich und Deutschland 1945-1965 (Wien 2000); vgl. SEIDEL, Österreichs Wirtschaft.
20
STOURZH, Der österreichische Staatsvertrag, 992 f.; vgl. Clemens JABLONER [et alii], Schlussbericht der Historikerkommission der Republik Österreich. Vermögensentzug während der NS-Zeit sowie Rückstellungen und Entschädigungen seit 1945 in Österreich. Zusammenfassungen und Einschätzungen (Wien – München 2003).
Begegnungen26_Sipos
Begegnungen
Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, Band 26:65–70.
PÉTER SIPOS
Österreichs Neutralität in der internationalen Politik 1955–1989
Im Zeitalter der Konfrontation zwischen den Supermächten setzten die internationalen Kräfteverhältnisse dem politischen Spielraum der kleinen Staaten, so auch dem Österreichs, von vorne herein enge Grenzen. Zum Schutz ihrer Sicherheit boten sich ihnen lediglich zwei Möglichkeiten: Entweder der Anschluss an einen der Machtblöcke oder der Verbleib in dauerhafter Neutralität.
Kleinstaaten und Neutralität
Die „ewige” österreichische Neutralität entwickelte sich in Zusammenhang mit dem sowjetisch-amerikanischen Konflikt und mit dem machtpolitischen Gleichgewicht in Europa. Die Existenz des freien und unabhängigen Österreichs wurde durch den Staatsvertrag von 1955 garantiert. Auf seiner Grundlage verankerte die österreichische Bundesverfassung die Neutralität des Landes. Die Beendigung der Besatzung durch die vier Großmächte konnte von Österreich ohne dauerhafte Teilung des Staatsgebiets – wie im Falle von Deutschland, Korea und Vietnam nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg – nur so erreicht werden, dass das Land sowohl außerhalb des westlichen als auch des östlichen Machtblocks blieb. Diese Bedingung formulierte der vierte Punkt des Staatsvertrages: Er untersagte den „Anschluss” an Deutschland und schrieb die ständige Neutralität vor.
Die auf diese Weise erfolgte Festlegung der internationalen Position des Landes gewährleistete nicht nur seinen Fortbestand als souveräner und ungeteilter Staat, sondern Österreich erfüllte aufgrund seiner Neutralität auch eine bedeutende Rolle im Prozess der Entspannung, insbesondere in Ostmitteleuropa, sowie bei der Bewahrung des Friedens und des politischen Gleichgewichts.
Die Neutralität eröffnete Österreich zugleich – so die Worte von Kanzler Julius Raab von der Volkspartei – „seit 1918 zum ersten Mal die Möglichkeit einer aktiven und konstruktiven Außenpolitik”. Und der sozialdemokratische Außenminister und spätere Bundeskanzler Bruno Kreisky erklärte 1964 in Budapest in seinem als Gast der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften gehaltenen Vortrag folgendes: „Ich selbst halte die Neutralität Österreich für einen der historischen, geographischen und wirtschaftlichen Situation angemessenen außenpolitischen Grundsatz. Je uneingeschränkter wir uns zu dieser Maxime bekennen, desto stabiler ist Österreichs Position in Europa, desto größer unsere Unabhängigkeit und desto sicherer unsere Freiheit.”
Auch die grundlegende innenpolitische Voraussetzung der Neutralität entstand nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, nämlich der feste Wille des österreichischen Volkes zur Bewahrung seiner Unabhängigkeit und sein Vertrauen in die wirtschaftliche Lebensfähigkeit des Landes. (Diese innere Einstellung wird auch durch die Ergebnisse der Meinungsumfragen in den 1980er Jahren unterstrichen, also nach nahezu drei Jahrzehnten der Erfahrung mit der Neutralität. Etwa 80 Prozent der Befragten bevorzugten zu diesem Zeitpunkt die Neutralität gegenüber der Zugehörigkeit zu einem Bündnissystem.
Die Popularität der Neutralität und ihre allgemeine Akzeptanz hatten ihre Wurzeln auch in der Tatsache, dass die Neutralität eine freie Entscheidung der österreichischen Gesetzgebung war und nicht aufgrund äußeren Drucks zu einem Verfassungsgesetz wurde.
Blockfreiheit und Neutralität
Ständige Neutralität bedeutet aber keinesfalls ideologische Neutralität. Österreich wie auch die anderen neutralen Staaten in Europa (Schweiz, Schweden und Finnland) identifizierten sich nämlich mit der westlichen Welt und der bürgerlichen Demokratie. Gemäß dem mehrfach zum Ausdruck gebrachten Standpunkt führender österreichischer Politiker verpflichtet die Neutralität zwar den Staat, schränkt aber keinesfalls das Recht der Bürger ein, ihre Meinung frei zu äußern. Kanzler Josef Klaus betonte nicht zufällig gerade im September 1968, am zweiten Tag der sowjetischen Intervention in der Tschechoslowakei: „Für die österreichische Regierung gab es nie einen Zweifel, dass Österreich ein freier und demokratischer Staat ist, der niemals und in keinerlei Form den Kommunismus akzeptiert hat.”
In der internationalen Politik ist es notwendig, zwischen Neutralität und Blockfreiheit zu unterscheiden. Zur Gruppe der Blockfreien gehörten zumeist die Staaten der Dritten Welt. Unter diesen sind kommunistische Länder (Kuba und Vietnam) ebenso vertreten, wie eindeutig westorientierte Staaten (Singapur und Thailand). Die neutralen Länder in Europa hingegen waren eindeutig der pluralistischen Demokratie und der Marktwirtschaft verpflichtet.
Dieser Unterschied schloss selbstverständlich die Kooperation der beiden Ländergruppen auf internationalen Foren – als N (neutral) + N (nonaligned) Block – nicht aus. Auf dem 1970 abgehaltenen Gipfeltreffen der Bewegung der „Blockfreien” in Lusaka wurde auf österreichische Initiative der Status eines „Gastes” eingeführt. Ab 1976 nahmen Österreich, Schweden, Finnland und die Schweiz regelmäßig mit Beobachterstatus an den Konferenzen der blockfreien Staaten teil.
Die aktive Neutralität
Neutralität bedeutete keineswegs Passivität oder Enthaltung in der internationalen Politik.
Die österreichische Neutralität unterschied sich deutlich vom schweizerischen und vom schwedischen Modell und ähnelte vielmehr der finnischen Variante, und zwar in zweierlei Hinsicht. Österreich schrieb der politischen Aktivität größere Bedeutung zu und setzte weniger auf ein entwickeltes Militärpotential. (Die Schweiz und Schweden verfügten demgegenüber über eine beträchtliche militärische Infrastruktur, eine entwickelte Rüstungsindustrie, autarke Waffengattungen und ein breites System der Bürgermiliz. Auch ihre geostrategische Lage war wesentlich günstiger: Schweden lag – nach einer allgemeinen Redewendung – „auf keiner Straße, die von irgendwo nach irgendwohin geführt hätte”, und die Schweiz fühlte sich im Schutz der Alpen in sicherer Entfernung von der Frontlinie eines möglichen bewaffneten Konflikts der Supermächte. Deshalb bevorzugten sie die bewaffnete Neutralität.) Finnland hatte eine gemeinsame Grenze mit der Sowjetunion, noch dazu an einer Stelle, die unter dem Aspekt der Sicherheit der beiden Länder sensibel war. Die geostrategische Situation Österreichs war im Zeitalter der Konfrontation der beiden Militärblöcke noch heikler. Österreich grenzte an zwei NATO-Staaten (Italien und West-Deutschland) und an zwei Staaten des Warschauer Vertrags (Ungarn und die Tschechoslowakei), außerdem an die neutrale Schweiz und an das blockfreie Jugoslawien und – nur der Vollständigkeit halber – an den Zwergstaat Liechtenstein. Die Donau ist seit Jahrhunderten eine der Hauptverkehrsadern in Europa. Wien, Wohnort jedes fünften Österreichers, liegt östlicher als Prag und war keine 50 Kilometer von den Truppen des Warschauer Paktes entfernt. Außerdem ist Wien nicht nur eine der anziehendsten Städte der Welt, sondern auch eine der am schwersten zu verteidigenden. All dies inspirierte die österreichische Regierung dazu, der Diplomatie den Vorrang gegenüber der präventiven militärischen Vorbereitung zu geben. Der 1985 angenommene Nationale Verteidigungsplan räumte dementsprechend der Außenpolitik und der inneren Stabilität Priorität gegenüber den Bemühungen der nationalen Verteidigung ein.
Vermittler und Friedenshüter
Die Schweiz trat damals den Vereinten Nationen nicht bei. Österreich hingegen sah gerade in der UNO eine Garantie für seine Neutralität. Im Dezember 1955 wurde es Vollmitglied der Organisation. In den folgenden Jahren entwickelte sich Wien sogar – nach New York und Genf – zu einem der „Hauptquartiere” der Weltorganisation und zudem zum Sitz mehrerer internationaler Organisationen. 1973/1974 war Österreich eines der nicht ständigen Mitglieder des Sicherheitsrates und der österreichische Diplomat und Politiker Kurt Waldheim übte von 1971 bis 1981 das Amt des UNO-Generalsekretärs aus.
Österreich wurde zu einem wichtigen Schauplatz der Vermittlung zwischen den beiden Supermächten. 1961 war Wien der Gastgeber des Treffens von Nikita S. Chruschtschow und John F. Kennedy und 1979 Hausherr der Besprechung von Jimmy Carter und Leonid Breschnew. In der österreichischen Hauptstadt fanden wichtige Ost-West-Beratungen statt, die zu den Abkommen SALT I (1972) und SALT II (1978) führten. Hier wurde überdies lange Jahre hindurch über die Reduzierung der konventionellen Streitkräfte in Mitteleuropa verhandelt.
Seit Anfang der 1960er Jahre nahm Österreich bei zahlreichen Gelegenheiten an Friedenseinsätzen der UNO teil. 1960 richtete es erstmals ein Feldlazarett im Kongo ein, 1964 entsandte es ein 700 bis 800 Mann starkes Bataillon und eine Polizeieinheit nach Zypern.
Österreichische Soldaten wirkten zudem bei der Überwachung des Waffenstillstands nach den arabisch-israelischen Kriegen von 1967 und 1973 mit und beteiligten sich 1974 an der Kontrolle der Separation der israelischen und syrischen Truppen auf den Golan-Höhen. Österreichische Beobachter spielten überdies 1988 bei der Überwachung der pakistanisch-afghanischen sowie der irakisch-iranischen Abkommen eine Rolle.
Bis Ende der 1980er Jahre dienten insgesamt 27.052 österreichische Offiziere und Soldaten unter der Flagge der UNO. Die Teilnahme an den Friedensmissionen erforderte von Österreich auch beträchtliche finanzielle Beiträge. Die Kosten wurden nämlich zu 70 Prozent von den Staaten getragen, die die Kontingente aufstellten, und die 30 Prozent, die die UNO übernahm, wurden erst mit mehrjähriger Verspätung ausgezahlt. 1988 überstiegen die diesbezüglichen österreichischen Ausgaben 21 Millionen Schilling (3 Millionen D-Mark).
Flüchtlingsasyl
Es ist eine beachtliche internationale humanitäre Leistung Österreichs, dass es seit der Wiederherstellung seiner Souveränität den Transit mehrere Flüchtlingswellen durch sein Land erlaubte und politisch Verfolgten kontinuierlich Asyl bot. 1956 suchten nahezu 180.000 Personen aus Ungarn Zuflucht in Österreich (siehe den Artikel von Lajos Gecsényi in diesem Band), 1968 etwa 160.000 aus der Tschechoslowakei und 1980/1981 30.000 aus Polen. Ein beträchtlicher Teil von ihnen fand – mittels des Internationalen Auswanderungskomitees – in den Vereinigten Staaten, in Kanada und Australien Aufnahme, während sich einige tausend Flüchtlinge dauerhaft in Österreich niederließen. Tausende von Flüchtlingen kamen auch aus Chile, Kurdistan und aus den Staaten Indochinas, vor allem aus Vietnam. In den 1980er Jahren wurde Österreich zum einzigen Transitland, über das etwa 260.000 Juden aus der Sowjetunion nach Israel, in die Vereinigten Staaten oder in andere Länder auswanderten.
Österreich und die Entwicklungsländer
Österreich leistete gegenüber den Staaten der Dritten Welt sowohl materielle als auch politische Unterstützung. Diesbezüglich sei nur auf einige Fakten verwiesen: Ende der 1980er Jahre überwies Österreich für ein gemeinsam mit der Weltbank finanziertes Programm eine Milliarde Schilling für Maßnahmen, die für die Entwicklung der Wasser- und Energieversorgung, des Gesundheitswesens und der Infrastruktur in den Ländern Schwarzafrikas bestimmt waren. Mehreren Ländern in Afrika sowie Nicaragua, Bangladesch und Pakistan wurde österreichische Lebensmittelhilfe zuteil.
Eine bedeutende Initiative ist mit dem Namen Bruno Kreisky verbunden. Der österreichische Kanzler legte 1976 auf der Konferenz der europäischen und latein-amerikanischen Sozialdemokraten dar, dass für die Dritte Welt ein neuer „Marshall-Plan” notwendig sei. Dieser müsse sich auf die wichtigsten Ziele konzentrieren: Errichtung von Häfen und Eisenbahnnetzen, Aufbau von Telekommunikationssystemen und Errichtung von Bewässerungssystemen usw. All diese Maßnahmen würden es möglich machen, die natürlichen Reserven der Welt zu erschließen und zu nutzen, vielen Millionen Menschen Arbeitsmöglichkeiten eröffnen und zugleich neue Märkte für die Industrie in den entwickelten Ländern schaffen.
Bei den Konflikten im afrikanischen und asiatischen Raum nahm die österreichische Regierung immer im Sinne demokratischer außenpolitischer Grundsätze Stellung. So verurteilte sie bei mehreren Gelegenheiten die Apartheid in Südafrika und befürwortete internationale Sanktionen gegen das dortige rassistische Regime, d.h. einen Handels- und Finanzboykott, ein Verbot von sportlichen und kulturellen Beziehungen zu Südafrika sowie ein Waffenembargo. Und in der Nahost-Frage forderte sie, dass bei deren Regelung die legitimen Rechte des palästinensischen Volkes beachtet werden müssten, einschließlich des Rechts auf Selbstbestimmung und der Gründung eines eigenen Staates. Gleichzeitig unterstrich sie das Existenzrecht aller Staaten der Region, so auch das Israels.
Die österreichische Regierung verurteilte darüber hinaus wiederholt die sowjetische Intervention in Afghanistan (1979) und sprach sich für den Abzug der sowjetischen Truppen und für die Anerkennung des Selbstbestimmungsrechts des afghanischen Volkes aus.
Österreich – in Europa
Die Aufmerksamkeit der österreichischen Außenpolitik konzentrierte sich – neben ihrem globalen Interesse – natürlich in erster Linie auf Europa. In dieser Hinsicht kam zwei Fragen eine herausragende Bedeutung zu: Zum einen das Verhältnis zu den Gremien und Organisationen der Gemeinschaft sowie der Platz und die Rolle Österreichs in diesen, zum anderen die Beziehungen zu den Ländern der sowjetischen Einflusszone, insbesondere zu den unmittelbaren Nachbarn.
Österreich trat im April 1956 dem Europarat bei. Der österreichische Historiker Leo Steiner würdigte die Bedeutung dieses Schrittes so: „Die so sehr neue österreichische Neutralität wurde von einigen Staaten anfangs misstrauisch betrachtet. Der Eintritt in den Europarat und die Übernahme der Verpflichtungen aus der Charta bewies aber eindeutig, dass wir ideologisch zum Lager der pluralistisch-demokratischen Staaten gehören und keinerlei ideelle Neutralität vertreten.”
Im wirtschaftlichen Bereich war Österreich eines der Gründungsmitglieder der 1960 ins Leben gerufenen Europäischen Freihandelsorganisation. (Die EFTA-Mitgliedschaft war in vollem Maße mit der Neutralität zu vereinbaren.) Gleichzeitig unterhielt Österreich auch lebendige Beziehungen zur Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft. Die Absicht, der EWG einzutreten, brachte das Land im Juli 1989 zum Ausdruck, zu einem Zeitpunkt also, als ein sowjetisches Veto bereits anachronistisch und wirkungslos gewesen wäre.
Das Europäische Parlament stimmte dem Beitritt Österreichs im Mai 1994 zu. Diese Absicht wurde im Juni 1994 durch ein Referendum, bei dem 66,4 Prozent der Abstimmenden mit „Ja” votierten, bekräftigt. Am 1. Januar 1995 wurde Österreich schließlich Vollmitglied der Europäischen Union.
Gegen Ende der 1980er Jahre wirkten sich – neben den Prozessen der Europäischen Integration – die grundlegenden Veränderungen, die damals im osteuropäischen Teil des sowjetischen Machtbereichs stattfanden, auf die Situation Österreichs aus. Beide Prozesse standen in einem engen Zusammenhang. Aufgrund der Beziehungen, die den früheren Kontakten und auch den historischen Traditionen entsprachen, erleichterte Österreich mit zahlreichen Initiativen die Umsetzung der Transformationsprozesse in Osteuropa, die Annäherung der osteuropäischen Staaten an die Union und schließlich auch den Beitritt dieser Länder zu den Organisationen der europäischen wirtschaftlichen und politischen Integration.